. Who, World Health Organization/Global Health Observatory data repository. World Health Organization, 2014.

R. E. Black, S. Cousens, H. L. Johnson, J. E. Lawn, I. Rudan et al., Child Health Epidemiology Reference Group of WHO and UNICEF

, Global, regional, and national causes of child mortality in 2008: a systematic analysis, Lancet, vol.375, issue.10, pp.60549-60550

J. Papenburg and G. Boivin, The distinguishing features of human metapneumovirus and respiratory syncytial virus, Rev Med Virol, vol.20, pp.245-260, 2010.

B. G. Van-den-hoogen, J. C. De-jong, J. Groen, T. Kuiken, R. De-groot et al., A newly discovered human pneumovirus isolated from young children with respiratory tract disease, Nat Med, vol.7, pp.719-724, 2001.

C. F. Yang, C. K. Wang, S. J. Tollefson, R. Piyaratna, L. D. Lintao et al., Genetic diversity and evolution of human metapneumovirus fusion protein over twenty years, Virol J, vol.6, p.138, 2009.

M. De-graaf, A. D. Osterhaus, R. A. Fouchier, and E. C. Holmes, Evolutionary dynamics of human and avian metapneumoviruses, J Gen Virol, vol.89, pp.2933-2942, 2008.

B. G. Van-den-hoogen, S. Herfst, L. Sprong, P. A. Cane, E. Forleo-neto et al., Antigenic and genetic variability of human metapneumoviruses, Emerg Infect Dis, vol.10, pp.658-666, 2004.

J. Papenburg, J. Carbonneau, S. Isabel, M. G. Bergeron, J. V. Williams et al., Genetic diversity and molecular evolution of the major human metapneumovirus surface glycoproteins over a decade, J Clin Virol, vol.58, pp.541-547, 2013.

M. Al-turab, W. Chehadeh, and W. Al-nakib, Phylogenetic analysis of human metapneumovirus detected in hospitalized patients in Kuwait during the years 2009-2011, J Infect Public Health, vol.8, pp.448-457, 2015.

J. S. Kahn, Epidemiology of human metapneumovirus, Clin Microbiol Rev, vol.19, pp.546-557, 2006.

V. Schildgen, B. Van-den-hoogen, R. Fouchier, R. A. Tripp, R. Alvarez et al., Human metapneumovirus: lessons learned over the first decade, Clin Microbiol Rev, vol.24, pp.734-754, 2011.

J. E. Crowe, Human metapneumovirus as a major cause of human respiratory tract disease, Pediatr Infect Dis J, vol.23, pp.215-221, 2004.

J. V. Williams, P. A. Harris, S. J. Tollefson, L. L. Halburnt-rush, J. M. Pingsterhaus et al., Human metapneumovirus and lower respiratory tract disease in otherwise healthy infants and children, N Engl J Med, vol.350, pp.443-450, 2004.

J. V. Williams, C. K. Wang, C. F. Yang, S. J. Tollefson, F. S. House et al., The role of human metapneumovirus in upper respiratory tract infections in children: a 20-year experience, J Infect Dis, vol.193, pp.387-395, 2006.

G. Lu, R. Gonzalez, L. Guo, C. Wu, J. Wu et al., Large-scale seroprevalence analysis of human metapneumovirus and human respiratory syncytial virus infections in Beijing, China, Virol J, vol.8, p.62, 2011.

J. Lusebrink, C. Wiese, A. Thiel, R. L. Tillmann, V. Ditt et al., High seroprevalence of neutralizing capacity against human metapneumovirus in all age groups studied in Bonn, Germany. Clin Vaccine Immunol, vol.17, pp.481-484, 2010.

L. Zeng, R. Chen, K. Ishigami, M. Atsumi, Y. Koizumi et al., Association between human metapneumovirus seroprevalence and hypertension in elderly subjects in a longterm care facility, Hypertens Res, vol.34, pp.474-478, 2011.

J. V. Williams, K. M. Edwards, G. A. Weinberg, M. R. Griffin, C. B. Hall et al., Population-based incidence of human metapneumovirus infection among hospitalized children, J Infect Dis, vol.201, pp.1890-1898, 2010.

J. V. Williams, J. E. Crowe, . Jr, R. Enriquez, P. Minton et al., Human metapneumovirus infection plays an etiologic role in acute asthma exacerbations requiring hospitalization in adults, J Infect Dis, vol.192, pp.1149-1153, 2005.

R. A. Martinello, F. Esper, C. Weibel, D. Ferguson, M. L. Landry et al., Human metapneumovirus and exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, J Infect, vol.53, pp.248-254, 2006.

A. Ilvan, G. Aslan, M. S. Serin, M. Calikoglu, F. M. Yilmaz et al., Investigation of the presence of human metapneumovirus in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and asthma and its relationship with the attacks, 2013.

, Turkish, vol.47, pp.636-649

R. S. Djamin, S. Uzun, E. Snelders, J. J. Kluytmans, H. C. Hoogsteden et al., Occurrence of virus-induced COPD exacerbations during four seasons, Infect Dis (Lond), vol.47, pp.96-100, 2015.

A. Dosanjh, Respiratory metapneumoviral infection without coinfection in association with acute and chronic lung allograft dysfunction, J Inflamm Res, vol.8, pp.79-82, 2015.

P. K. Chan, J. S. Tam, C. W. Lam, E. Chan, A. Wu et al., Human metapneumovirus detection in patients with severe acute respiratory syndrome, Emerg Infect Dis, vol.9, pp.1058-1063, 2003.

S. M. Poutanen, D. E. Low, B. Henry, S. Finkelstein, D. Rose et al., Canada, Canadian Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Study Team, N Engl J Med, vol.348, pp.1995-2005, 2003.

D. Vicente, M. Montes, G. Cilla, and E. Perez-trallero, Human metapneumovirus and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, Emerg Infect Dis, vol.10, pp.1338-1339, 2004.

G. Boivin, Y. Abed, G. Pelletier, L. Ruel, D. Moisan et al., Virological features and clinical manifestations associated with human metapneumovirus: a new paramyxovirus responsible for acute respiratory-tract infections in all age groups, J Infect Dis, vol.186, pp.1330-1334, 2002.

G. Boivin, D. Serres, G. Cote, S. Gilca, R. Abed et al., Human metapneumovirus infections in hospitalized children, Emerg Infect Dis, vol.9, pp.634-640, 2003.

J. K. Louie, D. P. Schnurr, C. Y. Pan, D. Kiang, C. Carter et al., A summer outbreak of human metapneumovirus infection in a long-term-care facility, J Infect Dis, vol.196, pp.705-708, 2007.

P. Hopkins, K. Mcneil, F. Kermeen, M. Musk, E. Mcqueen et al., Human metapneumovirus in lung transplant recipients and comparison to respiratory syncytial virus, Am J Respir Crit Care Med, vol.178, pp.876-881, 2008.

E. E. Walsh, D. R. Peterson, and A. R. Falsey, Human metapneumovirus infections in adults: another piece of the puzzle, Arch Intern Med, vol.168, pp.2489-2496, 2008.

R. Syha, R. Beck, J. Hetzel, D. Ketelsen, U. Grosse et al., Human metapneumovirus (HMPV) associated pulmonary infections in immunocompromised adults-initial CT findings, disease course and comparison to respiratory-syncytial-virus (RSV) induced pulmonary infections, Eur J Radiol, vol.81, pp.4173-4178, 2012.

S. Matsuda, M. Nakamura, E. Hirano, N. Kiyota, T. Omura et al., Characteristics of human metapneumovirus infection prevailing in hospital wards housing patients with severe disabilities, Jpn J Infect Dis, vol.66, pp.195-200, 2013.

K. R. Talaat, R. A. Karron, B. Thumar, B. A. Mcmahon, A. C. Schmidt et al., Experimental infection of adults with recombinant wild-type human metapneumovirus, J Infect Dis, vol.208, pp.1669-1678, 2013.

L. E. Haas, N. X. De-rijk, and S. F. Thijsen, Human metapneumovirus infections on the ICU: a report of three cases. Ann Intensive Care 2:30, 2012.

J. S. Souza, A. Watanabe, E. Carraro, C. Granato, and N. Bellei, Severe metapneumovirus infections among immunocompetent and immunocompromised patients admitted to hospital with respiratory infection, J Med Virol, vol.85, pp.530-536, 2013.

J. C. Arnold, K. K. Singh, E. Milder, S. A. Spector, M. H. Sawyer et al., Human metapneumovirus associated with central nervous system infection in children, Pediatr Infect Dis J, vol.28, pp.1057-1060, 2009.

O. Schildgen, T. Glatzel, T. Geikowski, B. Scheibner, B. Matz et al., Human metapneumovirus RNA in encephalitis patient, Emerg Infect Dis, vol.11, pp.467-470, 2005.
DOI : 10.3201/eid1103.040676

URL : https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1103.040676

I. Sanchez-fernandez, R. Polo, M. Munoz-almagro, C. , M. Carretero et al., Human metapneumovirus in the cerebrospinal fluid of a patient with acute encephalitis, Arch Neurol, vol.69, pp.649-652, 2012.

T. Yokota and H. Enoki, Acute encephalopathy associated with human metapneumovirus: a case report, No To Hattatsu, vol.45, pp.461-462, 2013.

T. Niizuma, A. Okumura, K. Kinoshita, and T. Shimizu, Acute encephalopathy associated with human metapneumovirus infection, Jpn J Infect Dis, vol.67, pp.213-215, 2014.
DOI : 10.7883/yoken.67.213

URL : https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/yoken/67/3/67_213/_pdf

D. L. Webster, A. H. Gardner, T. J. Dye, and R. S. Chima, Status epilepticus: a possible association with human metapneumovirus infection, Pediatrics, vol.133, pp.747-750, 2014.

A. Fok, C. Mateevici, B. Lin, R. V. Chandra, and V. H. Chong, Encephalitis-associated human metapneumovirus pneumonia in adult, Australia, Emerg Infect Dis, vol.21, pp.2074-2076, 2015.
DOI : 10.3201/eid2111.150608

URL : https://doi.org/10.3201/eid2111.150608

A. Vehapoglu, O. Turel, U. Sahin, T. Kutlu, N. O. Iscan et al., Clinical significance of human metapneumovirus in refractory status epilepticus and encephalitis: case report and review of the literature, Case Rep Neurol Med, p.131780, 2015.

M. Hata, M. Ito, S. Kiyosawa, Y. Kimpara, S. Tanaka et al., A fatal case of encephalopathy possibly associated with human metapneumovirus infection, Jpn J Infect Dis, vol.60, pp.328-329, 2007.

A. Kaida, N. Iritani, H. Kubo, M. Shiomi, U. Kohdera et al., Seasonal distribution and phylogenetic analysis of human metapneumovirus among children in Osaka City, Japan. J Clin Virol, vol.35, pp.394-399, 2006.

J. V. Williams, R. Martino, N. Rabella, M. Otegui, R. Parody et al., A prospective study comparing human metapneumovirus with other respiratory viruses in adults with hematologic malignancies and respiratory tract infections, J Infect Dis, vol.192, pp.1061-1065, 2005.

C. Dokos, K. Masjosthusmann, G. Rellensmann, C. Werner, S. Schulerluttmann et al., Fatal human metapneumovirus infection following allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, Transpl Infect Dis, vol.15, pp.97-101, 2013.
DOI : 10.1111/tid.12074

T. Wierik, M. J. Nguyen, D. T. Beersma, M. F. Thijsen, S. F. Heemstra et al., An outbreak of severe respiratory tract infection caused by human metapneumovirus in a residential care facility for elderly in, Euro Surveill, vol.17, issue.3, p.20132, 2010.

R. S. Liao, D. M. Appelgate, and R. K. Pelz, An outbreak of severe respiratory tract infection due to human metapneumovirus in a long-term care facility for the elderly in Oregon, J Clin Virol, vol.53, pp.171-173, 2012.

K. M. Edwards, Y. Zhu, M. R. Griffin, G. A. Weinberg, C. B. Hall et al., Burden of human metapneumovirus infection in young children, N Engl J Med, vol.368, pp.633-643, 2013.

A. R. Falsey, J. E. Mcelhaney, J. Beran, G. A. Van-essen, X. Duval et al., Respiratory syncytial virus and other respiratory viral infections in older adults with moderate to severe influenza-like illness, J Infect Dis, vol.209, pp.1873-1881, 2014.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02098367

J. E. Schuster, N. Khuri-bulos, S. Faouri, A. Shehabi, M. Johnson et al., Human metapneumovirus infection in Jordanian children: epidemiology and risk factors for severe disease, Pediatr Infect Dis J, vol.34, pp.1335-1341, 2015.

J. Papenburg, M. E. Hamelin, N. Ouhoummane, J. Carbonneau, M. Ouakki et al., Comparison of risk factors for human metapneumovirus and respiratory syncytial virus disease severity in young children, J Infect Dis, vol.206, pp.178-189, 2012.

J. Hasvold, M. Sjoding, K. Pohl, C. Cooke, and R. C. Hyzy, The role of human metapneumovirus in the critically ill adult patient, J Crit Care, vol.31, pp.233-237, 2016.

S. Bosis, S. Esposito, A. D. Osterhaus, E. Tremolati, E. Begliatti et al., Association between high nasopharyngeal viral load and disease severity in children with human metapneumovirus infection, J Clin Virol, vol.42, pp.286-290, 2008.

E. T. Martin, J. Kuypers, J. Heugel, and J. A. Englund, Clinical disease and viral load in children infected with respiratory syncytial virus or human metapneumovirus, Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis, vol.62, pp.382-388, 2008.

J. F. Roussy, J. Carbonneau, M. Ouakki, J. Papenburg, M. E. Hamelin et al., Human metapneumovirus viral load is an important risk factor for disease severity in young children, J Clin Virol, vol.60, pp.133-140, 2014.

D. L. Farber, N. A. Yudanin, and N. P. Restifo, Human memory T cells: generation, compartmentalization and homeostasis, Nat Rev Immunol, vol.14, pp.24-35, 2014.

A. Cossarizza, C. Ortolani, R. Paganelli, D. Barbieri, D. Monti et al., CD45 isoforms expression on CD4 ? and CD8 ? T cells throughout life, from newborns to centenarians: implications for T cell memory, Mech Ageing Dev, vol.86, pp.1691-1691, 1996.

P. Saule, J. Trauet, V. Dutriez, V. Lekeux, J. P. Dessaint et al., Accumulation of memory T cells from childhood to old age: central and effector memory cells in CD4(?) versus effector memory and terminally differentiated memory cells in CD8(?) compartment, Mech Ageing Dev, vol.127, pp.274-281, 2006.

J. V. Williams, J. H. Weitkamp, D. L. Blum, B. J. Lafleur, J. E. Crowe et al., The human neonatal B cell response to respiratory syncytial virus uses a biased antibody variable gene repertoire that lacks somatic mutations, Mol Immunol, vol.47, pp.407-414, 2009.

K. Pancham, I. Sami, G. F. Perez, S. Huseni, B. Kurdi et al., Human metapneumovirus infection is associated with severe respiratory disease in preschool children with history of prematurity, Pediatr Neonatol, issue.23, 2015.

K. Pancham, G. F. Perez, S. Huseni, A. Jain, B. Kurdi et al., Premature infants have impaired airway antiviral IFNgamma responses to human metapneumovirus compared to respiratory syncytial virus, Pediatr Res, vol.78, pp.389-394, 2015.

A. A. El-kholy, N. A. Mostafa, A. A. Ali, S. A. El-sherbini, R. I. Ismail et al., Risk factors of prolonged hospital stay in children with viral severe acute respiratory infections, J Infect Dev Ctries, vol.8, pp.1285-1293, 2014.

A. Hoellein, J. Hecker, D. Hoffmann, F. Gottle, U. Protzer et al., Serious outbreak of human metapneumovirus in patients with hematologic malignancies, Leuk Lymphoma, 2015.

C. Godet, L. Goff, J. Beby-defaux, A. Robin, M. Raffoux et al., Human metapneumovirus pneumonia in patients with hematological malignancies, J Clin Virol, vol.61, pp.593-596, 2014.

H. Y. Chu, C. Renaud, E. Ficken, B. Thomson, J. Kuypers et al., Respiratory tract infections due to human metapneumovirus in immunocompromised children, J Pediatr Infect Dis Soc, vol.3, pp.286-293, 2014.

E. Walker and M. G. Ison, Respiratory viral infections among hospitalized adults: experience of a single tertiary healthcare hospital, Influenza Other Respir Viruses, vol.8, pp.282-292, 2014.

C. Renaud, H. Xie, S. Seo, J. Kuypers, A. Cent et al., Mortality rates of human metapneumovirus and respiratory syncytial virus lower respiratory tract infections in hematopoietic cell transplantation recipients, Biol Blood Marrow Transplant, vol.19, pp.1220-1226, 2013.

M. Ali, J. M. Baker, S. E. Richardson, S. Weitzman, U. Allen et al., Human metapneumovirus (hMPV) infection in children with cancer, J Pediatr Hematol Oncol, vol.35, pp.444-446, 2013.

N. Noel, B. Rammaert, J. Zuber, N. Sayre, M. F. Mamzer-bruneel et al., Lower respiratory tract infection in a renal transplant recipient: do not forget metapneumovirus, p.353871, 2012.

J. A. Englund, M. Boeckh, J. Kuypers, W. G. Nichols, R. C. Hackman et al., Brief communication: fatal human metapneumovirus infection in stem-cell transplant recipients, 2006.

, Ann Intern Med, vol.144, pp.344-349

H. Y. Wei, K. C. Tsao, C. G. Huang, Y. C. Huang, and T. Y. Lin, Clinical features of different genotypes/genogroups of human metapneumovirus in hospitalized children, J Microbiol Immunol Infect, vol.46, pp.352-357, 2013.

A. Arnott, S. Vong, M. Sek, M. Naughtin, J. Beaute et al., Genetic variability of human metapneumovirus amongst an all ages population in Cambodia between, Infect Genet Evol, vol.15, pp.43-52, 2007.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/pasteur-00808148

E. Agapov, K. C. Sumino, M. Gaudreault-keener, G. A. Storch, and M. J. Holtzman, Genetic variability of human metapneumovirus infection: evidence of a shift in viral genotype without a change in illness, J Infect Dis, vol.193, pp.396-403, 2006.

H. R. Kim, A. R. Cho, M. K. Lee, S. W. Yun, and T. H. Kim, Genotype variability and clinical features of human metapneumovirus isolated from Korean children, J Mol Diagn, vol.14, pp.61-64, 2007.

B. G. Van-den-hoogen, T. M. Bestebroer, A. D. Osterhaus, and R. A. Fouchier, Analysis of the genomic sequence of a human metapneumovirus, Virology, vol.295, pp.119-132, 2002.

S. Biacchesi, M. H. Skiadopoulos, K. C. Tran, B. R. Murphy, P. L. Collins et al., Recovery of human metapneumovirus from cDNA: optimization of growth in vitro and expression of additional genes, Virology, vol.321, pp.247-259, 2004.

S. Herfst, M. De-graaf, J. H. Schickli, R. S. Tang, J. Kaur et al., Recovery of human metapneumovirus genetic lineages A and B from cloned cDNA, J Virol, vol.78, pp.8264-8270, 2004.

P. L. Collins and G. W. Wertz, cDNA cloning and transcriptional mapping of nine polyadenylylated RNAs encoded by the genome of human respiratory syncytial virus, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, vol.80, pp.3208-3212, 1983.

L. E. Dickens, P. L. Collins, and G. W. Wertz, Transcriptional mapping of human respiratory syncytial virus, J Virol, vol.52, pp.364-369, 1984.

S. Biacchesi, M. H. Skiadopoulos, G. Boivin, C. T. Hanson, B. R. Murphy et al., Genetic diversity between human metapneumovirus subgroups, Virology, vol.315, pp.528-530, 2003.

R. A. Lamb, G. D. Parks, D. M. Knipe, P. M. Howley, J. I. Cohen et al., Fields virology, pp.957-995, 2013.

U. J. Buchholz, S. Biacchesi, Q. N. Pham, K. C. Tran, L. Yang et al., Deletion of M2 gene open reading frames 1 and 2 of human metapneumovirus: effects on RNA synthesis, attenuation, and immunogenicity, J Virol, vol.79, pp.6588-6597, 2005.

S. E. Bakker, S. Duquerroy, M. Galloux, C. Loney, E. Conner et al., The respiratory syncytial virus nucleoprotein-RNA complex forms a left-handed helical nucleocapsid, J Gen Virol, vol.94, pp.1734-1738, 2013.

K. El-omari, B. Dhaliwal, J. Ren, N. G. Abrescia, M. Lockyer et al., Structures of respiratory syncytial virus nucleocapsid protein from two crystal forms: details of potential packing interactions in the native helical form, Acta Crystallogr Sect F Struct Biol Cryst Commun, vol.67, pp.1179-1183, 2011.

R. G. Tawar, S. Duquerroy, C. Vonrhein, P. F. Varela, L. Damier-piolle et al., Crystal structure of a nucleocapsid-like nucleoprotein-RNA complex of respiratory syncytial virus, Science, vol.326, pp.1279-1283, 2009.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/pasteur-00457523

M. De-graaf, S. Herfst, E. J. Schrauwen, Y. Choi, B. G. Van-den-hoogen et al., Specificity and functional interaction of the polymerase complex proteins of human and avian metapneumoviruses, J Gen Virol, vol.89, pp.975-983, 2008.

M. Dochow, S. A. Krumm, J. E. Crowe, . Jr, M. L. Moore et al., Independent structural domains in paramyxovirus polymerase protein, J Biol Chem, vol.287, pp.6878-6891, 2012.

Y. Zhang, Y. Wei, X. Zhang, H. Cai, S. Niewiesk et al., Rational design of human metapneumovirus live attenuated vaccine candidates by inhibiting viral mRNA cap methyltransferase, J Virol, vol.88, pp.11411-11429, 2014.

A. Asenjo, E. Calvo, and N. Villanueva, Phosphorylation of human respiratory syncytial virus P protein at threonine 108 controls its interaction with the M2-1 protein in the viral RNA polymerase complex, J Gen Virol, vol.87, pp.3637-3642, 2006.

A. Derdowski, T. R. Peters, N. Glover, R. Qian, T. J. Utley et al., Human metapneumovirus nucleoprotein and phosphoprotein interact and provide the minimal requirements for inclusion body formation, J Gen Virol, vol.89, pp.2698-2708, 2008.

S. Barik, T. Mclean, and L. C. Dupuy, Phosphorylation of Ser232 directly regulates the transcriptional activity of the P protein of human respiratory syncytial virus: phosphorylation of Ser237 may play an accessory role, Virology, vol.213, pp.405-412, 1995.

L. C. Dupuy, S. Dobson, V. Bitko, and S. Barik, Casein kinase 2-mediated phosphorylation of respiratory syncytial virus phosphoprotein P is essential for the transcription elongation activity of the viral polymerase; phosphorylation by casein kinase 1 occurs mainly at Ser(215) and is without effect, J Virol, vol.73, pp.8384-8392, 1999.

N. Bastien, N. S. Taylor, T. Ward, D. Peret, T. C. Boivin et al., Sequence analysis of the N, P, M and F genes of Canadian human metapneumovirus strains, Virus Res, vol.93, pp.51-62, 2003.

C. E. Palavecino, P. F. Cespedes, R. S. Gomez, A. M. Kalergis, and S. M. Bueno, Immunization with a recombinant bacillus Calmette-Guerin strain confers protective Th1 immunity against the human metapneumovirus, J Immunol, vol.192, pp.214-223, 2014.

J. H. Schickli, J. Kaur, M. Macphail, J. M. Guzzetta, R. R. Spaete et al., Deletion of human metapneumovirus M2-2 increases mutation frequency and attenuates growth in hamsters, Virol J, vol.5, p.69, 2008.

H. Cai, Y. Zhang, Y. Ma, J. Sun, X. Liang et al., Zinc binding activity of human metapneumovirus M2-1 protein is indispensable for viral replication and pathogenesis in vivo, J Virol, vol.89, pp.6391-6405, 2015.

C. Leyrat, M. Renner, K. Harlos, J. T. Huiskonen, and J. M. Grimes, Drastic changes in conformational dynamics of the antiterminator M2-1 regulate transcription efficiency in Pneumovirinae, vol.3, 2014.

S. A. Esperante, M. G. Noval, T. A. Altieri, G. A. De-oliveira, J. L. Silva et al., Fine modulation of the respiratory syncytial virus M2-1 protein quaternary structure by reversible zinc removal from its Cys(3)-His(1) motif, Biochemistry, vol.52, pp.6779-6789, 2013.

Y. Kitagawa, M. Zhou, M. Yamaguchi, T. Komatsu, K. Takeuchi et al., Human metapneumovirus M2-2 protein inhibits viral transcription and replication, Microbes Infect, vol.12, pp.135-145, 2010.

S. Biacchesi, Q. N. Pham, M. H. Skiadopoulos, B. R. Murphy, P. L. Collins et al., Infection of nonhuman primates with recombinant human metapneumovirus lacking the SH, G, or M2-2 protein categorizes each as a nonessential accessory protein and identifies vaccine candidates, J Virol, vol.79, pp.12608-12613, 2005.

Y. Sabo, M. Ehrlich, and E. Bacharach, The conserved YAGL motif in human metapneumovirus is required for higher-order cellular assemblies of the matrix protein and for virion production, J Virol, vol.85, pp.6594-6609, 2011.

C. Leyrat, M. Renner, K. Harlos, J. T. Huiskonen, and J. M. Grimes, Structure and self-assembly of the calcium binding matrix protein of human metapneumovirus, Structure, vol.22, pp.136-148, 2014.

R. Ghildyal, D. Li, I. Peroulis, B. Shields, P. G. Bardin et al., Interaction between the respiratory syncytial virus G glycoprotein cytoplasmic domain and the matrix protein, J Gen Virol, vol.86, pp.1879-1884, 2005.

Y. Weng, W. Lu, A. Harmon, X. Xiang, Q. Deng et al., The cellular endosomal sorting complex required for transport pathway is not involved in avian metapneumovirus budding in a virus-like-particle expression system, J Gen Virol, vol.92, pp.1205-1213, 2011.

R. G. Cox, S. B. Livesay, M. Johnson, M. D. Ohi, and J. V. Williams, The human metapneumovirus fusion protein mediates entry via an interaction with RGD-binding integrins, J Virol, vol.86, pp.12148-12160, 2012.

Y. Wei, Y. Zhang, H. Cai, A. M. Mirza, R. M. Iorio et al., Roles of the putative integrin-binding motif of the human metapneumovirus fusion (F) protein in cell-cell fusion, viral infectivity, and pathogenesis, J Virol, vol.88, pp.3491-3504, 2014.

G. Cseke, M. S. Maginnis, R. G. Cox, S. J. Tollefson, A. B. Podsiad et al., Integrin alphavbeta1 promotes infection by human metapneumovirus, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, vol.106, pp.1566-1571, 2009.

A. Chang, C. Masante, U. J. Buchholz, and R. E. Dutch, Human metapneumovirus (HMPV) binding and infection are mediated by interactions between the HMPV fusion protein and heparan sulfate, J Virol, vol.86, pp.3230-3243, 2012.

S. A. Miller, S. Tollefson, J. E. Crowe, . Jr, J. V. Williams et al., Examination of a fusogenic hexameric core from human metapneumovirus and identification of a potent synthetic peptide inhibitor from the heptad repeat 1 region, J Virol, vol.81, pp.141-149, 2007.

R. M. Schowalter, S. E. Smith, and R. E. Dutch, Characterization of human metapneumovirus F protein-promoted membrane fusion: critical roles for proteolytic processing and low pH, J Virol, vol.80, pp.10931-10941, 2006.

S. Herfst, V. Mas, L. S. Ver, R. J. Wierda, A. D. Osterhaus et al., Low-pH-induced membrane fusion mediated by human metapneumovirus F protein is a rare, strain-dependent phenomenon, J Virol, vol.82, pp.8891-8895, 2008.

R. A. Lamb and T. S. Jardetzky, Structural basis of viral invasion: lessons from paramyxovirus F, Curr Opin Struct Biol, vol.17, pp.427-436, 2007.

A. Sorkin, V. Zastrow, and M. , Signal transduction and endocytosis: close encounters of many kinds, Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol, vol.3, pp.600-614, 2002.

R. G. Cox, B. A. Mainou, M. Johnson, A. K. Hastings, J. E. Schuster et al., Human metapneumovirus is capable of entering cells by fusion with endosomal membranes, PLoS Pathog, vol.11, 2015.

S. Thammawat, T. A. Sadlon, P. G. Hallsworth, and D. L. Gordon, Role of cellular glycosaminoglycans and charged regions of viral G protein in human metapneumovirus infection, J Virol, vol.82, pp.11767-11774, 2008.

P. Adamson, S. Thammawat, G. Muchondo, T. Sadlon, and D. Gordon, Diversity in glycosaminoglycan binding amongst hMPV G protein lineages, Viruses, vol.4, pp.3785-3803, 2012.

S. Biacchesi, Q. N. Pham, M. H. Skiadopoulos, B. R. Murphy, P. L. Collins et al., Modification of the trypsin-dependent cleavage activation site of the human metapneumovirus fusion protein to be trypsin independent does not increase replication or spread in rodents or nonhuman primates, J Virol, vol.80, pp.294-300, 2006.

M. De-graaf, S. Herfst, J. Aarbiou, P. C. Burgers, F. Zaaraoui-boutahar et al., Small hydrophobic protein of human metapneumovirus does not affect virus replication and host gene expression in vitro, PLoS One, vol.8, 2013.

C. Masante, F. El-najjar, A. Chang, A. Jones, C. L. Moncman et al., The human metapneumovirus small hydrophobic protein has properties consistent with those of a viroporin and can modulate viral fusogenic activity, J Virol, vol.88, pp.6423-6433, 2014.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01101081

L. Nouen, C. Hillyer, P. Brock, L. G. Winter, C. C. Rabin et al., Human metapneumovirus SH and G glycoproteins inhibit macropinocytosis-mediated entry into human dendritic cells and reduce CD4 ? T cell activation, J Virol, vol.88, pp.6453-6469, 2014.

X. Bao, D. Kolli, T. Liu, Y. Shan, R. P. Garofalo et al., Human metapneumovirus small hydrophobic protein inhibits NF-kappaB transcriptional activity, J Virol, vol.82, pp.8224-8229, 2008.

J. V. Williams, Z. Chen, G. Cseke, D. W. Wright, C. J. Keefer et al., A recombinant human monoclonal antibody to human metapneumovirus fusion protein that neutralizes virus in vitro and is effective therapeutically in vivo, J Virol, vol.81, pp.8315-8324, 2007.

G. Cseke, D. W. Wright, S. J. Tollefson, J. E. Johnson, J. E. Crowe et al., Human metapneumovirus fusion protein vaccines that are immunogenic and protective in cotton rats, J Virol, vol.81, pp.698-707, 2007.

M. H. Skiadopoulos, S. Biacchesi, U. J. Buchholz, E. Amaro-carambot, S. R. Surman et al., Individual contributions of the human metapneumovirus F, G, and SH surface glycoproteins to the induction of neutralizing antibodies and protective immunity, Virology, vol.345, pp.492-501, 2006.

M. D. Audsley and G. W. Moseley, Paramyxovirus evasion of innate immunity: diverse strategies for common targets, World J Virol, vol.2, pp.57-70, 2013.

G. D. Parks and A. Ma, Paramyxovirus activation and inhibition of innate immune responses, J Mol Biol, vol.425, pp.4872-4892, 2013.

S. O. Vargas, H. P. Kozakewich, A. R. Perez-atayde, and A. J. Mcadam, Pathology of human metapneumovirus infection: insights into the pathogenesis of a newly identified respiratory virus, Pediatr Dev Pathol, vol.7, pp.478-486, 2004.

M. Darniot, T. Petrella, S. Aho, P. Pothier, and C. Manoha, Immune response and alteration of pulmonary function after primary human metapneumovirus (hMPV) infection of BALB/c mice, Vaccine, vol.23, pp.4473-4480, 2005.

M. E. Hamelin, G. A. Prince, A. M. Gomez, R. Kinkead, and G. Boivin, Human metapneumovirus infection induces long-term pulmonary inflammation associated with airway obstruction and hyperresponsiveness in mice, J Infect Dis, vol.193, pp.1634-1642, 2006.

T. Kuiken, B. G. Van-den-hoogen, D. A. Van-riel, J. D. Laman, G. Van-amerongen et al., Experimental human metapneumovirus infection of cynomolgus macaques (Macaca fascicularis) results in virus replication in ciliated epithelial cells and pneumocytes with associated lesions throughout the respiratory tract, Am J Pathol, vol.164, issue.10, pp.63750-63759, 2004.

M. Debiaggi, F. Canducci, M. Sampaolo, M. C. Marinozzi, M. Parea et al., Persistent symptomless human metapneumovirus infection in hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients, J Infect Dis, vol.194, pp.474-478, 2006.

Y. Abed and G. Boivin, Human metapneumovirus infection in immunocompromised child, Emerg Infect Dis, vol.14, pp.854-856, 2008.

K. M. Evashuk, S. E. Forgie, S. Gilmour, H. Huynh, B. E. Lee et al., Respiratory failure associated with human metapneumovirus infection in an infant posthepatic transplant, Am J Transplant, vol.8, pp.1567-1569, 2008.

A. Gupta, M. Bembea, A. Brown, C. Robertson, L. Romer et al., Respiratory failure secondary to human metapneumovirus requiring extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in a 32-month-old child. Case Rep Pediatr, 2012.

M. K. Lay, P. F. Cespedes, C. E. Palavecino, M. A. Leon, R. A. Diaz et al., Human metapneumovirus infection activates the TSLP pathway that drives excessive pulmonary inflammation and viral replication in mice, Eur J Immunol, 2015.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/inserm-02146519

R. Alvarez, K. S. Harrod, W. J. Shieh, S. Zaki, and R. A. Tripp, Human metapneumovirus persists in BALB/c mice despite the presence of neutralizing antibodies, J Virol, vol.78, pp.14003-14011, 2004.

Y. Liu, D. L. Haas, S. Poore, S. Isakovic, M. Gahan et al., Human metapneumovirus establishes persistent infection in the lungs of mice and is reactivated by glucocorticoid treatment, J Virol, vol.83, pp.6837-6848, 2009.

S. Jain, D. J. Williams, S. R. Arnold, K. Ampofo, A. M. Bramley et al., CDC EPIC Study Team. 2015. Community-acquired pneumonia requiring hospitalization among, vol.372, pp.835-845

N. Homaira, S. P. Luby, W. A. Petri, R. Vainionpaa, M. Rahman et al., Incidence of respiratory virusassociated pneumonia in urban poor young children of Dhaka, PLoS One, vol.7, 2009.

Y. F. Chang, K. C. Tsao, Y. C. Liu, Y. C. Chen, P. C. Yu et al., Diagnosis of human metapneumovirus in patients hospitalized with acute lower respiratory tract infection using a metal-enhanced fluorescence technique, J Virol Methods, vol.213, pp.151-156, 2015.

A. Guerrero-plata, A. Casola, G. Suarez, X. Yu, L. Spetch et al., Differential response of dendritic cells to human metapneumovirus and respiratory syncytial virus, Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol, vol.34, pp.320-329, 2006.

P. F. Cespedes, P. A. Gonzalez, and A. M. Kalergis, Human metapneumovirus keeps dendritic cells from priming antigen-specific naive T cells, Immunology, vol.139, pp.366-376, 2013.

C. Le-nouen, S. Munir, S. Losq, C. C. Winter, T. Mccarty et al., Infection and maturation of monocyte-derived human dendritic cells by human respiratory syncytial virus, human metapneumovirus, and human parainfluenza virus type 3, Virology, vol.385, pp.169-182, 2009.

M. C. Tan, L. Battini, A. C. Tuyama, S. Macip, G. A. Melendi et al., Characterization of human metapneumovirus infection of myeloid dendritic cells, Virology, vol.357, pp.1-9, 2007.

A. Guerrero-plata, D. Kolli, C. Hong, A. Casola, and R. P. Garofalo, Subversion of pulmonary dendritic cell function by paramyxovirus infections, J Immunol, vol.182, pp.3072-3083, 2009.

D. Kolli, M. R. Gupta, E. Sbrana, T. S. Velayutham, H. Chao et al., Alveolar macrophages contribute to the pathogenesis of human metapneumovirus infection while protecting against respiratory syncytial virus infection, Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol, vol.51, pp.502-515, 2014.

L. B. Ivashkiv and L. T. Donlin, Regulation of type I interferon responses, Nat Rev Immunol, vol.14, pp.36-49, 2014.

E. Riboldi, R. Daniele, M. A. Cassatella, S. Sozzani, and D. Bosisio, Engagement of BDCA-2 blocks TRAIL-mediated cytotoxic activity of plasmacytoid dendritic cells, Immunobiology, vol.214, pp.868-876, 2009.

Y. Arimori, R. Nakamura, H. Yamada, K. Shibata, N. Maeda et al., Type I interferon plays opposing roles in cytotoxicity and interferon-gamma production by natural killer and CD8 T cells after influenza A virus infection in mice, J Innate Immun, vol.6, pp.456-466, 2014.

S. Liao, X. Bao, T. Liu, S. Lai, K. Li et al., Role of retinoic acid inducible gene-I in human metapneumovirus-induced cellular signalling, J Gen Virol, vol.89, pp.1978-1986, 2008.

X. Bao, D. Kolli, J. Ren, T. Liu, R. P. Garofalo et al., Human metapneumovirus glycoprotein G disrupts mitochondrial signaling in airway epithelial cells, PLoS One, vol.8, p.62568, 2013.

N. Goutagny, Z. Jiang, J. Tian, P. Parroche, J. Schickli et al., Cell type-specific recognition of human metapneumoviruses (HMPVs) by retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I) and TLR7 and viral interference of RIG-I ligand recognition by HMPV-B1 phosphoprotein, J Immunol, vol.184, pp.1168-1179, 2010.

J. Ren, Q. Wang, D. Kolli, D. J. Prusak, C. T. Tseng et al., Human metapneumovirus M2-2 protein inhibits innate cellular signaling by targeting MAVS, J Virol, vol.86, pp.13049-13061, 2012.

M. Banos-lara, A. Ghosh, and A. Guerrero-plata, Critical role of MDA5 in the interferon response induced by human metapneumovirus infection in dendritic cells and in vivo, J Virol, vol.87, pp.1242-1251, 2013.

D. Kolli, X. Bao, T. Liu, C. Hong, T. Wang et al., Human metapneumovirus glycoprotein G inhibits TLR4-dependent signaling in monocyte-derived dendritic cells, J Immunol, vol.187, pp.47-54, 2011.

A. K. Hastings, J. J. Erickson, J. E. Schuster, K. L. Boyd, S. J. Tollefson et al., Role of type I interferon signaling in human metapneumovirus pathogenesis and control of viral replication, J Virol, vol.89, pp.4405-4420, 2015.

J. J. Erickson, P. Gilchuk, A. K. Hastings, S. J. Tollefson, M. Johnson et al., Viral acute lower respiratory infections impair CD8 ? T cells through PD-1, J Clin Invest, vol.122, pp.2967-2982, 2012.

K. M. Spann, Z. Loh, J. P. Lynch, A. Ullah, V. Zhang et al., IRF-3, IRF-7, and IPS-1 promote host defense against acute human metapneumovirus infection in neonatal mice, Am J Pathol, vol.184, pp.1795-1806, 2014.

M. Banos-lara, L. Harvey, A. Mendoza, and A. Guerrero-plata, Type III interferon induction by HMPV infection in human epithelial cells, abstr A2781, 2013.

M. Banos-lara, L. Harvey, A. Mendoza, D. Simms, V. N. Chouljenko et al., Impact and regulation of lambda interferon response in human metapneumovirus infection, J Virol, vol.89, pp.730-742, 2015.

B. Chi, H. L. Dickensheets, K. M. Spann, M. A. Alston, C. Luongo et al., Alpha and lambda interferon together mediate suppression of CD4 T cells induced by respiratory syncytial virus, J Virol, vol.80, pp.5032-5040, 2006.

J. Ren, D. Kolli, T. Liu, R. Xu, R. P. Garofalo et al., Human metapneumovirus inhibits IFN-beta signaling by downregulating Jak1 and Tyk2 cellular levels, PLoS One, vol.6, 2011.

D. N. Mitzel, R. J. Jaramillo, H. Stout-delgado, A. P. Senft, and K. S. Harrod, Human metapneumovirus inhibits the IL-6-induced JAK/STAT3 signalling cascade in airway epithelium, J Gen Virol, vol.95, pp.26-37, 2014.

J. Ren, G. Liu, J. Go, D. Kolli, G. Zhang et al., Human metapneumovirus M2-2 protein inhibits innate immune response in monocyte-derived dendritic cells, PLoS One, vol.9, 2014.

X. Bao, T. Liu, Y. Shan, K. Li, R. P. Garofalo et al., Human metapneumovirus glycoprotein G inhibits innate immune responses, PLoS Pathog, vol.4, 2008.

X. Bao, M. Sinha, T. Liu, C. Hong, B. A. Luxon et al., Identification of human metapneumovirus-induced gene networks in airway epithelial cells by microarray analysis, Virology, vol.374, pp.114-127, 2008.

Y. H. Wang, T. Ito, Y. H. Wang, B. Homey, N. Watanabe et al., Maintenance and polarization of human TH2 central memory T cells by thymic stromal lymphopoietin-activated dendritic cells, Immunity, vol.24, pp.827-838, 2006.

T. Ito, Y. H. Wang, O. Duramad, T. Hori, G. J. Delespesse et al., TSLP-activated dendritic cells induce an inflammatory T helper type 2 cell response through OX40 ligand, J Exp Med, vol.202, pp.1213-1223, 2005.

D. R. Neill, S. H. Wong, A. Bellosi, R. J. Flynn, M. Daly et al., Nuocytes represent a new innate effector leukocyte that mediates type-2 immunity, Nature, vol.464, pp.1367-1370, 2010.

L. B. Ford, V. Cerovic, S. W. Milling, G. J. Graham, C. A. Hansell et al., Characterization of conventional and atypical receptors for the chemokine CCL2 on mouse leukocytes, J Immunol, vol.193, pp.400-411, 2014.

A. Wang, Z. Wang, Y. Cao, S. Cheng, H. Chen et al., CCL2/CCR2-dependent recruitment of Th17 cells but not Tc17 cells to the lung in a murine asthma model, Int Arch Allergy Immunol, vol.166, pp.52-62, 2015.

D. N. Cook, M. A. Beck, T. M. Coffman, S. L. Kirby, J. F. Sheridan et al., Requirement of MIP-1 alpha for an inflammatory response to viral infection, Science, vol.269, pp.1583-1585, 1995.

S. D. Wolpe, G. Davatelis, B. Sherry, B. Beutler, D. G. Hesse et al., Macrophages secrete a novel heparin-binding protein with inflammatory and neutrophil chemokinetic properties, J Exp Med, vol.167, pp.570-581, 1988.

J. W. Tyner, O. Uchida, N. Kajiwara, E. Y. Kim, A. C. Patel et al., CCL5-CCR5 interaction provides antiapoptotic signals for macrophage survival during viral infection, Nat Med, vol.11, pp.1180-1187, 2005.

S. D. Wolpe, B. Sherry, D. Juers, G. Davatelis, R. W. Yurt et al., Identification and characterization of macrophage inflammatory protein 2, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, vol.86, pp.612-616, 1989.

Q. Li, P. W. Park, C. L. Wilson, and W. C. Parks, Matrilysin shedding of syndecan-1 regulates chemokine mobilization and transepithelial efflux of neutrophils in acute lung injury, Cell, vol.111, pp.1079-1085, 2002.

M. Kaur and D. Singh, Neutrophil chemotaxis caused by chronic obstructive pulmonary disease alveolar macrophages: the role of CXCL8 and the receptors CXCR1/CXCR2, J Pharmacol Exp Ther, vol.347, pp.173-180, 2013.

J. H. Dufour, M. Dziejman, M. T. Liu, J. H. Leung, T. E. Lane et al., IFN-gamma-inducible protein 10 (IP-10; CXCL10)-deficient mice reveal a role for IP-10 in effector T cell generation and trafficking, J Immunol, vol.168, pp.3195-3204, 2002.

B. D. Medoff, A. Sauty, A. M. Tager, J. A. Maclean, R. N. Smith et al., IFN-gamma-inducible protein 10 (CXCL10) contributes to airway hyperreactivity and airway inflammation in a mouse model of asthma, J Immunol, vol.168, pp.5278-5286, 2002.

K. E. Cole, C. A. Strick, T. J. Paradis, K. T. Ogborne, M. Loetscher et al., Interferon-inducible T cell alpha chemoattractant (I-TAC): a novel non-ELR CXC chemokine with potent activity on activated T cells through selective high affinity binding to CXCR3, J Exp Med, vol.187, pp.2009-2021, 1998.

C. Pasare and R. Medzhitov, Toll pathway-dependent blockade of CD4 ? CD25 ? T cell-mediated suppression by dendritic cells, Science, vol.299, pp.1033-1036, 2003.

J. Mestas and C. C. Hughes, Of mice and not men: differences between mouse and human immunology, J Immunol, vol.172, pp.2731-2738, 2004.

A. Guerrero-plata, A. Casola, and R. P. Garofalo, Human metapneumovirus induces a profile of lung cytokines distinct from that of respiratory syncytial virus, J Virol, vol.79, pp.14992-14997, 2005.

R. Alvarez and R. A. Tripp, The immune response to human metapneumovirus is associated with aberrant immunity and impaired virus clearance in BALB/c mice, J Virol, vol.79, pp.5971-5978, 2005.

J. Qiao, A. Li, and J. X. , TSLP from RSV-stimulated rat airway epithelial cells activates myeloid dendritic cells, Immunol Cell Biol, vol.89, pp.231-238, 2011.

H. C. Lee, M. B. Headley, Y. M. Loo, A. Berlin, M. Gale et al., Thymic stromal lymphopoietin is induced by respiratory syncytial virus-infected airway epithelial cells and promotes a type 2 response to infection, J Allergy Clin Immunol, vol.130, pp.1187-1196, 2012.

C. P. Halfhide, B. F. Flanagan, S. P. Brearey, J. A. Hunt, A. M. Fonceca et al., Respiratory syncytial virus binds and undergoes transcription in neutrophils from the blood and airways of infants with severe bronchiolitis, J Infect Dis, vol.204, pp.451-458, 2011.

M. Inngjerdingen, B. Damaj, and A. A. Maghazachi, Human NK cells express CC chemokine receptors 4 and 8 and respond to thymus and activation-regulated chemokine, macrophage-derived chemokine, and I-309, J Immunol, vol.164, pp.4048-4054, 2000.

R. M. Steinman and Z. A. Cohn, Identification of a novel cell type in peripheral lymphoid organs of mice. I. Morphology, quantitation, tissue distribution, J Exp Med, vol.137, pp.1142-1162, 1973.

R. M. Steinman and Z. A. Cohn, Identification of a novel cell type in peripheral lymphoid organs of mice. II. Functional properties in vitro, J Exp Med, vol.139, pp.380-397, 1974.

P. A. Gonzalez, L. J. Carreno, D. Coombs, J. E. Mora, E. Palmieri et al., T cell receptor binding kinetics required for T cell activation depend on the density of cognate ligand on the antigen-presenting cell, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, vol.102, pp.4824-4829, 2005.

V. Vanguri, C. C. Govern, R. Smith, and E. S. Huseby, Viral antigen density and confinement time regulate the reactivity pattern of CD4 Tcell responses to vaccinia virus infection, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, vol.110, pp.288-293, 2013.

A. Grakoui, S. K. Bromley, C. Sumen, M. M. Davis, A. S. Shaw et al., The immunological synapse: a molecular machine controlling T cell activation, Science, vol.285, pp.221-227, 1999.

D. Wang, B. Sun, M. Feng, H. Feng, W. Gong et al., Role of scavenger receptors in dendritic cell function, Hum Immunol, vol.76, pp.442-446, 2015.

H. Hemmi and S. Akira, TLR signalling and the function of dendritic cells, Chem Immunol Allergy, vol.86, pp.120-135, 2005.

J. Banchereau and R. M. Steinman, Dendritic cells and the control of immunity, Nature, vol.392, pp.245-252, 1998.

J. K. Tan and H. C. O'neill, Maturation requirements for dendritic cells in T cell stimulation leading to tolerance versus immunity, J Leukoc Biol, vol.78, pp.319-324, 2005.

S. A. Quezada, L. Z. Jarvinen, E. F. Lind, and R. J. Noelle, CD40/CD154 interactions at the interface of tolerance and immunity, Annu Rev Immunol, vol.22, pp.307-328, 2004.

L. Frasca, G. Fedele, S. Deaglio, C. Capuano, R. Palazzo et al., CD38 orchestrates migration, survival, and Th1 immune response of human mature dendritic cells, Blood, vol.107, pp.2392-2399, 2006.

V. Lukacs-kornek, D. Engel, F. Tacke, and C. Kurts, The role of chemokines and their receptors in dendritic cell biology, Front Biosci, vol.13, pp.2238-2252, 2008.

P. A. Gonzalez, L. J. Carreno, P. F. Cespedes, S. M. Bueno, and C. A. Riedel, Modulation of tumor immunity by soluble and membrane-bound molecules at the immunological synapse, Clin Dev Immunol, p.450291, 2013.

P. A. Bretscher, A two-step, two-signal model for the primary activation of precursor helper T cells, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, vol.96, pp.185-190, 1999.

L. Nouen, C. Hillyer, P. Winter, C. C. Mccarty, T. Rabin et al., Low CCR7-mediated migration of human monocyte derived dendritic cells in response to human respiratory syncytial virus and human metapneumovirus, PLoS Pathog, vol.7, 2011.

P. A. Gonzalez, C. E. Prado, E. D. Leiva, L. J. Carreno, S. M. Bueno et al., Respiratory syncytial virus impairs T cell activation by preventing synapse assembly with dendritic cells, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, vol.105, pp.14999-15004, 2008.

L. Nouen, C. Hillyer, P. Munir, S. Winter, C. C. Mccarty et al., Effects of human respiratory syncytial virus, metapneumovirus, parainfluenza virus 3 and influenza virus on CD4 ? T cell activation by dendritic cells, PLoS One, vol.5, 2010.

T. Rothoeft, K. Fischer, S. Zawatzki, V. Schulz, U. Schauer et al., Differential response of human naive and memory/ effector T cells to dendritic cells infected by respiratory syncytial virus, Clin Exp Immunol, vol.150, pp.263-273, 2007.

P. F. Cespedes, S. M. Bueno, B. A. Ramirez, R. S. Gomez, S. A. Riquelme et al., Surface expression of the hRSV nucleoprotein impairs immunological synapse formation with T cells, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, vol.111, pp.3214-3223, 2014.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/inserm-02164397

T. Ebihara, R. Endo, N. Ishiguro, T. Nakayama, H. Sawada et al., Early reinfection with human metapneumovirus in an infant, J Clin Microbiol, vol.42, pp.5944-5946, 2004.

J. A. Pavlin, A. C. Hickey, N. Ulbrandt, Y. P. Chan, T. P. Endy et al., Human metapneumovirus reinfection among children in Thailand determined by ELISA using purified soluble fusion protein, J Infect Dis, vol.198, pp.836-842, 2008.

J. R. Teijaro, D. Verhoeven, C. A. Page, D. Turner, and D. L. Farber, Memory CD4 T cells direct protective responses to influenza virus in the lungs through helper-independent mechanisms, J Virol, vol.84, pp.9217-9226, 2010.

M. R. Olson, S. G. Seah, J. Cullen, M. Greyer, K. Edenborough et al., Helping themselves: optimal virus-specific CD4 T cell responses require help via CD4 T cell licensing of dendritic cells, J Immunol, vol.193, pp.5420-5433, 2014.

K. K. Mckinstry, T. M. Strutt, Y. Kuang, D. M. Brown, S. Sell et al., Memory CD4 ? T cells protect against influenza through multiple synergizing mechanisms, J Clin Invest, vol.122, pp.2847-2856, 2012.

S. Banerjee, W. M. Sullender, R. K. Ahuja, and S. Broor, Seroepidemiological study of human metapneumovirus, Indian J Med Microbiol, vol.29, pp.363-367, 2011.

M. Okamoto, K. Sugawara, E. Takashita, Y. Muraki, S. Hongo et al., Longitudinal course of human metapneumovirus antibody titers and reinfection in healthy adults, J Med Virol, vol.82, pp.2092-2096, 2010.

K. A. Herd, M. D. Nissen, P. M. Hopkins, T. P. Sloots, and R. W. Tindle, Major histocompatibility complex class I cytotoxic T lymphocyte immunity to human metapneumovirus (hMPV) in individuals with previous hMPV infection and respiratory disease, J Infect Dis, vol.197, pp.584-592, 2008.

T. Ebihara, R. Endo, H. Kikuta, N. Ishiguro, H. Ishiko et al., Human metapneumovirus infection in Japanese children, J Clin Microbiol, vol.42, pp.126-132, 2004.

D. Kolli, E. L. Bataki, L. Spetch, A. Guerrero-plata, A. M. Jewell et al., T lymphocytes contribute to antiviral immunity and pathogenesis in experimental human metapneumovirus infection, J Virol, vol.82, pp.699-707, 2008.

D. G. Brooks, M. J. Trifilo, K. H. Edelmann, L. Teyton, and D. B. Mcgavern, Interleukin-10 determines viral clearance or persistence in vivo, Nat Med, vol.12, pp.1301-1309, 2006.

K. A. Herd, M. Nelson, S. Mahalingam, and R. W. Tindle, Pulmonary infection of mice with human metapneumovirus induces local cytotoxic T-cell and immunoregulatory cytokine responses similar to those seen with human respiratory syncytial virus, J Gen Virol, vol.91, pp.1302-1310, 2010.

J. J. Erickson, P. Lu, S. Wen, A. K. Hastings, P. Gilchuk et al., Acute viral respiratory infection rapidly induces a CD8 ? T cell exhaustion-like phenotype, J Immunol, vol.195, pp.4319-4330, 2015.

,

L. V. Rizzo, R. H. Dekruyff, and D. T. Umetsu, Generation of B cell memory and affinity maturation. Induction with Th1 and Th2 T cell clones, J Immunol, vol.148, pp.3733-3739, 1992.

S. Herfst and R. A. Fouchier, Vaccination approaches to combat human metapneumovirus lower respiratory tract infections, J Clin Virol, vol.41, pp.49-52, 2008.

M. Macphail, J. H. Schickli, R. S. Tang, J. Kaur, C. Robinson et al., Identification of smallanimal and primate models for evaluation of vaccine candidates for human metapneumovirus (hMPV) and implications for hMPV vaccine design, J Gen Virol, vol.85, pp.1655-1663, 2004.

Q. N. Pham, S. Biacchesi, M. H. Skiadopoulos, B. R. Murphy, P. L. Collins et al., Chimeric recombinant human metapneumoviruses with the nucleoprotein or phosphoprotein open reading frame replaced by that of avian metapneumovirus exhibit improved growth in vitro and attenuation in vivo, J Virol, vol.79, pp.15114-15122, 2005.

M. H. Skiadopoulos, S. Biacchesi, U. J. Buchholz, J. M. Riggs, S. R. Surman et al., The two major human metapneumovirus genetic lineages are highly related antigenically, and the fusion (F) protein is a major contributor to this antigenic relatedness, J Virol, vol.78, pp.6927-6937, 2004.

R. S. Tang, K. Mahmood, M. Macphail, J. M. Guzzetta, A. A. Haller et al., A host-range restricted parainfluenza virus type 3 (PIV3) expressing the human metapneumovirus (hMPV) fusion protein elicits protective immunity in African green monkeys, Vaccine, vol.23, pp.1657-1667, 2005.

R. S. Tang, J. H. Schickli, M. Macphail, F. Fernandes, L. Bicha et al., Effects of human metapneumovirus and respiratory syncytial virus antigen insertion in two 3= proximal genome positions of bovine/human parainfluenza virus type 3 on virus replication and immunogenicity, J Virol, vol.77, pp.10819-10828, 2003.

J. V. Williams, S. J. Tollefson, J. E. Johnson, J. E. Crowe, and J. , The cotton rat (Sigmodon hispidus) is a permissive small animal model of human metapneumovirus infection, pathogenesis, and protective immunity, J Virol, vol.79, pp.10944-10951, 2005.

R. G. Cox, J. J. Erickson, A. K. Hastings, J. C. Becker, M. Johnson et al., Human metapneumovirus virus-like particles induce protective B and T cell responses in a mouse model, J Virol, vol.88, pp.6368-6379, 2014.

C. Levy, L. Aerts, M. E. Hamelin, C. Granier, J. Szecsi et al., Virus-like particle vaccine induces cross-protection against human metapneumovirus infections in mice, Vaccine, vol.31, pp.2778-2785, 2013.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00965026

J. T. Bates, J. A. Pickens, J. E. Schuster, M. Johnson, S. J. Tollefson et al., Immunogenicity and efficacy of alphavirus-derived replicon vaccines for respiratory syncytial virus and human metapneumovirus in nonhuman primates, Vaccine, vol.34, pp.950-956, 2016.

P. Liu, Z. Shu, X. Qin, Y. Dou, Y. Zhao et al., A live attenuated human metapneumovirus vaccine strain provides complete protection against homologous viral infection and cross-protection against heterologous viral infection in BALB/c mice, Clin Vaccine Immunol, vol.20, pp.1246-1254, 2013.

S. Biacchesi, M. H. Skiadopoulos, L. Yang, E. W. Lamirande, K. C. Tran et al., Recombinant human metapneumovirus lacking the small hydrophobic SH and/or attachment G glycoprotein: deletion of G yields a promising vaccine candidate, J Virol, vol.78, pp.12877-12887, 2004.

S. Herfst, E. J. Schrauwen, M. De-graaf, G. Van-amerongen, B. G. Van-den-hoogen et al., Immunogenicity and efficacy of two candidate human metapneumovirus vaccines in cynomolgus macaques, Vaccine, vol.26, pp.4224-4230, 2008.

K. C. Yim, R. P. Cragin, M. S. Boukhvalova, J. C. Blanco, M. E. Hamlin et al., Human metapneumovirus: enhanced pulmonary disease in cotton rats immunized with formalin-inactivated virus vaccine and challenged, Vaccine, vol.25, pp.5034-5040, 2007.

R. L. De-swart, B. G. Van-den-hoogen, T. Kuiken, S. Herfst, G. Van-amerongen et al., Immunization of macaques with formalin-inactivated human metapneumovirus induces hypersensitivity to hMPV infection, Vaccine, vol.25, pp.8518-8528, 2007.

M. E. Hamelin, K. Yim, K. H. Kuhn, R. P. Cragin, M. Boukhvalova et al., Pathogenesis of human metapneumovirus lung infection in BALB/c mice and cotton rats, J Virol, vol.79, pp.8894-8903, 2005.

T. S. Velayutham, D. Kolli, T. Ivanciuc, R. P. Garofalo, and A. Casola, Critical role of TLR4 in human metapneumovirus mediated innate immune responses and disease pathogenesis, PLoS One, vol.8, p.78849, 2013.

Y. Zhang, S. Niewiesk, and J. Li, Small animal models for human metapneumovirus: cotton rat is more permissive than hamster and mouse, Pathogens, vol.3, pp.633-655, 2014.

J. J. Goronzy and C. M. Weyand, Understanding immunosenescence to improve responses to vaccines, Nat Immunol, vol.14, pp.428-436, 2013.

T. Shay, V. Jojic, O. Zuk, K. Rothamel, D. Puyraimond-zemmour et al., Conservation and divergence in the transcriptional programs of the human and mouse immune systems, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, vol.110, pp.2946-2951, 2013.

K. A. Herd, S. Mahalingam, I. M. Mackay, M. Nissen, T. P. Sloots et al., Cytotoxic T-lymphocyte epitope vaccination protects against human metapneumovirus infection and disease in mice, J Virol, vol.80, pp.2034-2044, 2006.

S. C. Wen, J. E. Schuster, P. Gilchuk, K. L. Boyd, S. Joyce et al., Lung CD8 ? T cell impairment occurs during human metapneumovirus infection despite virus-like particle induction of functional CD8 ? T cells, 2015.

, J Virol, vol.89, pp.8713-8726

M. Yamaguchi, Y. Kitagawa, M. Zhou, M. Itoh, and B. Gotoh, An anti-interferon activity shared by paramyxovirus C proteins: inhibition of Toll-like receptor 7/9-dependent alpha interferon induction, FEBS Lett, vol.588, pp.28-34, 2014.

K. J. Henrickson, Parainfluenza viruses, Clin Microbiol Rev, vol.16, pp.242-264, 2003.

X. Ma, X. Yang, X. Nian, Z. Zhang, Y. Dou et al., Identification of amino-acid residues in the V protein of peste des petits ruminants essential for interference and suppression of STAT-mediated interferon signaling, Virology, vol.483, pp.54-63, 2015.

A. Rothlisberger, D. Wiener, M. Schweizer, E. Peterhans, A. Zurbriggen et al., Two domains of the V protein of virulent canine distemper virus selectively inhibit STAT1 and STAT2 nuclear import, J Virol, vol.84, pp.6328-6343, 2010.

S. K. Chinnakannan, S. K. Nanda, and M. D. Baron, Morbillivirus V proteins exhibit multiple mechanisms to block type 1 and type 2 interferon signalling pathways, PLoS One, vol.8, 2013.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pone.0057063

URL : https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article/file?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0057063&type=printable

K. Childs, R. Randall, and S. Goodbourn, Paramyxovirus V proteins interact with the RNA helicase LGP2 to inhibit RIG-I-dependent interferon induction, J Virol, vol.86, pp.6405-6416, 2012.

J. Andrejeva, K. S. Childs, D. F. Young, T. S. Carlos, N. Stock et al., The V proteins of paramyxoviruses bind the IFNinducible RNA helicase, mda-5, and inhibit its activation of the IFN-beta promoter, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, vol.101, pp.17264-17269, 2004.

M. Ramaswamy, L. Shi, S. M. Varga, S. Barik, M. A. Behlke et al., Respiratory syncytial virus nonstructural protein 2 specifically inhibits type I interferon signal transduction, Virology, vol.344, pp.328-339, 2006.

J. Elliott, O. T. Lynch, Y. Suessmuth, P. Qian, C. R. Boyd et al., Respiratory syncytial virus NS1 protein degrades STAT2 by using the elongin-cullin E3 ligase, J Virol, vol.81, pp.3428-3436, 2007.

R. Malhotra and H. Olsson, Immunology, genetics and microbiota in the COPD pathophysiology: potential scope for patient stratification, Expert Rev Respir Med, vol.9, pp.153-159, 2015.

V. Von-messling, N. Oezguen, Q. Zheng, S. Vongpunsawad, W. Braun et al., Nearby clusters of hemagglutinin residues sustain SLAM-dependent canine distemper virus entry in peripheral blood mononuclear cells, J Virol, vol.79, pp.5857-5862, 2005.

L. Zipperle, J. P. Langedijk, C. Orvell, M. Vandevelde, A. Zurbriggen et al., Identification of key residues in virulent canine distemper virus hemagglutinin that control CD150/SLAM-binding activity, J Virol, vol.84, pp.9618-9624, 2010.

F. Bonami, P. A. Rudd, V. Messling, and V. , Disease duration determines canine distemper virus neurovirulence, J Virol, vol.81, pp.12066-12070, 2007.
DOI : 10.1128/jvi.00818-07

URL : https://jvi.asm.org/content/81/21/12066.full.pdf

V. Von-messling, N. Svitek, and R. Cattaneo, Receptor (SLAM [CD150]) recognition and the V protein sustain swift lymphocyte-based invasion of mucosal tissue and lymphatic organs by a morbillivirus, J Virol, vol.80, pp.6084-6092, 2006.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/pasteur-00820002

Y. Nakatsu, M. Takeda, S. Ohno, Y. Shirogane, M. Iwasaki et al., Measles virus circumvents the host interferon response by different actions of the C and V proteins, J Virol, vol.82, pp.8296-8306, 2008.

V. Mayer, J. L. Schulman, and E. D. Kilbourne, Nonlinkage of neurovirulence exclusively to viral hemagglutinin or neuraminidase in genetic recombinants of A-NWS (HON1) influenza virus, J Virol, vol.11, pp.272-278, 1973.

V. Von-messling, D. Milosevic, and R. Cattaneo, Tropism illuminated: lymphocyte-based pathways blazed by lethal morbillivirus through the host immune system, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, vol.101, pp.14216-14221, 2004.

D. Govindarajan and S. K. Samal, Sequence analysis of the large polymerase (L) protein of the US strain of avian metapneumovirus indicates a close resemblance to that of the human metapneumovirus, Virus Res, vol.105, pp.59-66, 2004.

X. Wen, J. C. Krause, G. P. Leser, R. G. Cox, R. A. Lamb et al., Structure of the human metapneumovirus fusion protein with neutralizing antibody identifies a pneumovirus antigenic site, Nat Struct Mol Biol, vol.19, pp.461-463, 2012.

C. Leyrat, M. Renner, K. Harlos, and J. M. Grimes, Solution and crystallographic structures of the central region of the phosphoprotein from human metapneumovirus, PLoS One, vol.8, p.80371, 2013.