J. R. Abrams, M. G. Lebwohl, C. A. Guzzo, B. V. Jegasothy, M. T. Goldfarb et al., , 1999.

, CTLA4Ig-mediated blockade of T-cell costimulation in patients with psoriasis vulgaris, J Clin Invest, vol.103, pp.1243-1252

G. Acevedo, N. K. Padala, L. Ni, and G. M. Jonakait, Astrocytes inhibit microglial surface expression of dendritic cell-related co-stimulatory molecules through a contact-mediated process, J Neurochem, vol.125, pp.575-587, 2013.

E. Akalin, A. Chandraker, M. E. Russell, L. A. Turka, W. W. Hancock et al.,

, CD28-B7 T cell costimulatory blockade by CTLA4Ig in the rat renal allograft model: Inhibition of cell-mediated and humoral immune responses in vivo, vol.62, pp.1942-1945

F. Aloisi, F. Ria, S. Columba-cabezas, H. Hess, G. Penna et al., Relative efficiency of microglia, astrocytes, dendritic cells and B cells in naive CD41 T cell priming and Th1/Th2 cell restimulation, Eur J Immunol, vol.29, pp.2705-2714, 1999.

P. E. Batchelor, G. T. Liberatore, M. J. Porritt, G. A. Donnan, and D. W. Howells, Inhibition of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor expression reduces dopaminergic sprouting in the injured striatum, Eur J Neurosci, vol.12, pp.3462-3468, 2000.

I. Bechmann, S. Peter, M. Beyer, U. Gimsa, and R. Nitsch, Presence of B7-2 (CD86) and lack of B7-1 (CD(80) on myelin phagocytosing MHC-II-positive rat microglia is associated with nondestructive immunity in vivo, FASEB J, vol.15, pp.1086-1088, 2001.

K. Biber, T. Owens, and E. Boddeke, What is microglia neurotoxicity (Not)?, Glia, vol.62, pp.841-854, 2014.

D. Boche, V. H. Perry, and J. A. Nicoll, Review: Activation patterns of microglia and their identification in the human brain, Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol, vol.39, pp.3-18, 2013.

M. Bohatschek, C. U. Kloss, K. Pfeffer, H. Bluethmann, and G. Raivich, B7.2 on activated and phagocytic microglia in the facial axotomy model: regulation by interleukin-1 receptor type 1, tumor necrosis factor receptors 1 and 2 and endotoxin, J Neuroimmunol, vol.156, pp.132-145, 2004.

S. Chabot, G. Williams, M. Hamilton, G. Sutherland, and V. W. Yong, Mechanisms of IL-10 production in human microglia-T cell interaction, J Immunol, vol.162, pp.6819-6828, 1999.

A. Chandraker, H. Azuma, K. Nadeau, C. B. Carpenter, N. L. Tilney et al., Late blockade of T cell costimulation interrupts progression of experimental chronic allograft rejection, J Clin Invest, vol.101, pp.2309-2318, 1998.

M. V. Chao, Neurotrophins and their receptors: A convergence point for many signalling pathways, Nat Rev Neurosci, vol.4, pp.299-309, 2003.

V. Chhor, L. Charpentier, T. Lebon, S. Ore, M. V. Celador et al., Characterization of phenotype markers and neuronotoxic potential of polarised primary microglia in vitro, Brain Behav Immun, vol.32, pp.70-85, 2013.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01544170

A. H. Cross, T. J. Girard, K. S. Giacoletto, R. J. Evans, R. M. Keeling et al., Long-term inhibition of murine experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis using CTLA-4-Fc supports a key role for CD28 costimulation, J Clin Invest, vol.95, pp.2783-2789, 1995.

M. Cutolo, S. Soldano, P. Montagna, A. Sulli, B. Seriolo et al., CTLA4-Ig interacts with cultured synovial macrophages from rheumatoid arthritis patients and downregulates cytokine production, Arthritis Res Ther, vol.11, p.176, 2009.

M. Czeh, P. Gressens, and A. M. Kaindl, The yin and yang of microglia, Dev Neurosci, vol.33, pp.199-209, 2011.

A. H. De-haas, H. W. Boddeke, and K. Biber, Region-specific expression of immunoregulatory proteins on microglia in the healthy CNS, Glia, vol.56, pp.888-894, 2008.

K. Deng, H. He, J. Qiu, B. Lorber, J. B. Bryson et al., Increased synthesis of spermidine as a result of upregulation of arginase I promotes axonal regeneration in culture and in vivo, J Neurosci, vol.29, pp.9545-9552, 2009.

S. Elkabes, E. M. Dicicco-bloom, and I. B. Black, Brain microglia/macrophages express neurotrophins that selectively regulate microglial proliferation and function, J Neurosci, vol.16, pp.2508-2521, 1996.

F. Esch, K. I. Lin, A. Hills, K. Zaman, J. M. Baraban et al., Purification of a multipotent antideath activity from bovine liver and its identification as arginase: Nitric oxide-independent inhibition of neuronal apoptosis, J Neurosci, vol.18, pp.4083-4095, 1998.

A. M. Espinosa-oliva, R. M. De-pablos, R. F. Villaran, S. Arguelles, J. L. Venero et al., Stress is critical for LPS-induced activation of microglia and damage in the rat hippocampus, Neurobiol Aging, vol.32, pp.85-102, 2011.

A. G. Estevez, M. A. Sahawneh, P. S. Lange, N. Bae, M. Egea et al., Arginase 1 regulation of nitric oxide production is key to survival of trophic factor-deprived motor neurons, J Neurosci, vol.26, pp.8512-8516, 2006.

R. Fan, F. Xu, M. L. Previti, J. Davis, A. M. Grande et al., Minocycline reduces microglial activation and improves behavioral deficits in a transgenic model of cerebral microvascular amyloid, J Neurosci, vol.27, pp.3057-3063, 2007.

F. Ferrini, D. Koninck, and Y. , Microglia control neuronal network excitability via BDNF signalling, Neural Plast, p.429815, 2013.

B. K. Finck, P. S. Linsley, and D. Wofsy, Treatment of murine lupus with CTLA4Ig, Science, vol.265, pp.1225-1227, 1994.

M. Fujii, T. Inoguchi, B. Batchuluun, N. Sugiyama, K. Kobayashi et al., CTLA-4Ig immunotherapy of obesity-induced insulin resistance by manipulation of macrophage polarization in adipose tissues, Biochem Biophys Res Commun, vol.438, pp.103-109, 2013.

C. Gomes, R. Ferreira, J. George, R. Sanches, D. I. Rodrigues et al., Activation of microglial cells triggers a release of brainderived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) inducing their proliferation in an adenosine A2A receptor-dependent manner: A2A receptor blockade prevents BDNF release and proliferation of microglia, J Neuroinflammation, vol.10, p.16, 2013.

U. Grohmann, C. Orabona, F. Fallarino, C. Vacca, F. Calcinaro et al., CTLA-4-Ig regulates tryptophan catabolism in vivo, Nat Immunol, vol.3, pp.1097-1101, 2002.

C. Guillot, S. Menoret, C. Guillonneau, C. Braudeau, M. G. Castro et al., Active suppression of allogeneic proliferative responses by dendritic cells after induction of long-term allograft survival by CTLA4Ig, Blood, vol.101, pp.3325-3333, 2003.

U. K. Hanisch and H. Kettenmann, Microglia: Active sensor and versatile effector cells in the normal and pathologic brain, Nat Neurosci, vol.10, pp.1387-1394, 2007.

J. Imitola, M. Comabella, A. K. Chandraker, F. Dangond, M. H. Sayegh et al., Neural stem/progenitor cells express costimulatory molecules that are differentially regulated by inflammatory and apoptotic stimuli, Am J Pathol, vol.164, pp.1615-1625, 2004.

S. Issazadeh, V. Navikas, M. Schaub, M. Sayegh, and S. Khoury, Kinetics of expression of costimulatory molecules and their ligands in murine relapsing experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis in vivo, J Immunol, vol.161, pp.1104-1112, 1998.

R. A. Jonas, T. F. Yuan, Y. X. Liang, J. B. Jonas, D. K. Tay et al., The spider effect: morphological and orienting classification of microglia in response to stimuli in vivo, PLoS One, vol.7, p.30763, 2012.

S. J. Khoury, E. Akalin, A. Chandraker, L. A. Turka, P. S. Linsley et al., CD28-B7 costimulatory blockade by CTLA4Ig prevents actively induced experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis and inhibits Th1 but spares Th2 cytokines in the central nervous system, J Immunol, vol.155, pp.4521-4524, 1995.

K. A. Kigerl, J. C. Gensel, D. P. Ankeny, J. K. Alexander, D. J. Donnelly et al., Identification of two distinct macrophage subsets with divergent effects causing either neurotoxicity or regeneration in the injured mouse spinal cord, J Neurosci, vol.29, pp.13435-13444, 2009.

J. M. Kremer, M. Dougados, P. Emery, P. Durez, J. Sibilia et al., Treatment of rheumatoid arthritis with the selective costimulation modulator abatacept: Twelve-month results of a phase iib, double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial, Arthritis Rheum, vol.52, pp.2263-2271, 2005.

M. Lalancette-hebert, G. Gowing, A. Simard, Y. C. Weng, and J. Kriz, Selective ablation of proliferating microglial cells exacerbates ischemic injury in the brain, J Neurosci, vol.27, pp.2596-2605, 2007.

J. D. Laman, M. Van-meurs, M. M. Schellekens, M. De-boer, B. Melchers et al., Expression of accessory molecules and cytokines in acute EAE in marmoset monkeys, 1998.

, J Neuroimmunol, vol.86, pp.30-45

D. J. Lenschow, Y. Zeng, J. R. Thistlethwaite, A. Montag, W. Brady et al., Long-term survival of xenogeneic pancreatic islet grafts induced by CTLA4lg, Science, vol.257, pp.789-792, 1992.

H. Lin, S. F. Bolling, P. S. Linsley, R. Q. Wei, D. Gordon et al.,

, Long-term acceptance of major histocompatibility complex mismatched cardiac allografts induced by CTLA4Ig plus donor-specific transfusion, J Exp Med, vol.178, pp.1801-1806

P. S. Linsley, W. Brady, M. Urnes, L. S. Grosmaire, N. K. Damle et al., CTLA-4 is a second receptor for the B cell activation antigen B7, J Exp Med, vol.174, pp.561-569, 1991.

Y. Liu, I. Teige, B. Birnir, and S. Issazadeh-navikas, Neuron-mediated generation of regulatory T cells from encephalitogenic T cells suppresses EAE, Nat Med, vol.12, pp.518-525, 2006.

A. Madinier, N. Bertrand, C. Mossiat, A. Prigent-tessier, A. Beley et al., Microglial involvement in neuroplastic changes following focal brain ischemia in rats, PLoS One, vol.4, p.8101, 2009.

K. Maeda, T. Sato, M. Azuma, H. Yagita, and K. Okumura, Characterization of rat CD80 and CD86 by molecular cloning and mAb, Int Immunol, vol.9, pp.993-1000, 1997.

T. Magnus, B. Schreiner, T. Korn, C. Jack, H. Guo et al., Microglial expression of the B7 family member B7 homolog 1 confers strong immune inhibition: Implications for immune responses and autoimmunity in the CNS, J Neurosci, vol.25, pp.2537-2546, 2005.

C. Martin, M. Plat, V. Nerriere-daguin, F. Coulon, S. Uzbekova et al., Transgenic expression of CTLA4-Ig by fetal pig neurons for xenotransplantation, Transgenic Res, vol.14, pp.373-384, 2005.

D. M. Mosser and J. P. Edwards, Exploring the full spectrum of macrophage activation, Nat Rev Immunol, vol.8, pp.958-969, 2008.

M. P. Mount, A. Lira, D. Grimes, P. D. Smith, S. Faucher et al., Involvement of interferon-gamma in microglialmediated loss of dopaminergic neurons, J Neurosci, vol.27, pp.3328-3337, 2007.

A. Nolan, H. Kobayashi, B. Naveed, A. Kelly, Y. Hoshino et al., Differential role for CD80 and CD86 in the regulation of the innate immune response in murine polymicrobial sepsis, PLoS One, vol.4, p.6600, 2009.

D. M. Norden, A. M. Fenn, A. Dugan, and J. P. Godbout, TGFbeta produced by IL-10 redirected astrocytes attenuates microglial activation, Glia, vol.62, pp.881-895, 2014.

G. M. O'keefe, V. T. Nguyen, and E. N. Benveniste, Regulation and function of class II major histocompatibility complex, CD40, and B7 expression in macrophages and microglia: Implications in neurological diseases, J Neurovirol, vol.8, pp.496-512, 2002.

J. A. Orellana, T. D. Montero, V. Bernhardi, and R. , Astrocytes inhibit nitric oxide-dependent Ca(21) dynamics in activated microglia: Involvement of ATP released via pannexin 1 channels, Glia, vol.61, pp.2023-2037, 2013.

H. Park and M. M. Poo, Neurotrophin regulation of neural circuit development and function, Nat Rev Neurosci, vol.14, pp.7-23, 2013.

C. N. Parkhurst and W. B. Gan, Microglia dynamics and function in the CNS, Curr Opin Neurobiol, vol.20, pp.595-600, 2010.

O. Pascual, B. Achour, S. Rostaing, P. Triller, A. Bessis et al., Microglia activation triggers astrocyte-mediated modulation of excitatory neurotransmission, Proc Natl Acad Sci, vol.109, pp.197-205, 2012.

J. T. Pesce, T. R. Ramalingam, M. M. Mentink-kane, M. S. Wilson, K. C. El-kasmi et al., Arginase-1-expressing macrophages suppress Th2 cytokine-driven inflammation and fibrosis, PLoS Pathog, vol.5, p.1000371, 2009.

N. Poirier, G. Blancho, and B. Vanhove, Alternatives to calcineurin inhibition in renal transplantation: Belatacept, the first co-stimulation blocker, Immunotherapy, vol.2, pp.625-636, 2010.

C. E. Rudd, A. Taylor, and H. Schneider, CD28 and CTLA-4 coreceptor expression and signal transduction, Immunol Rev, vol.229, pp.12-26, 2009.

B. Salomon and J. A. Bluestone, Complexities of CD28/B7: CTLA-4 costimulatory pathways in autoimmunity and transplantation, Annu Rev Immunol, vol.19, pp.225-252, 2001.

A. Y. Shih, H. B. Fernandes, F. Y. Choi, M. G. Kozoriz, Y. Liu et al., Policing the police: Astrocytes modulate microglial activation, J Neurosci, vol.26, pp.3887-3888, 2006.

M. Shinoyama, M. Ideguchi, H. Hayashi, D. Doi, N. Hashimoto et al., Cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen 4 immunogloblin promotes neuronal differentiation in the grafts of embryonic stem cell-derived neural precursor cells, Neuroscience, vol.202, pp.484-491, 2012.

Y. Shinozaki, M. Nomura, K. Iwatsuki, Y. Moriyama, C. Gachet et al., Microglia trigger astrocyte-mediated neuroprotection via purinergic gliotransmission, Sci Rep, vol.4, p.4329, 2014.

J. M. Slavik, J. E. Hutchcroft, and B. E. Bierer, CD80 and CD86 are not equivalent in their ability to induce the tyrosine phosphorylation of CD28, J Biol Chem, vol.274, pp.3116-3124, 1999.

A. J. Steelman and J. Li, Astrocyte galectin-9 potentiates microglial TNF secretion, J Neuroinflammation, vol.11, p.144, 2014.

S. Suvas, V. Singh, S. Sahdev, H. Vohra, and J. N. Agrewala, Distinct role of CD80 and CD86 in the regulation of the activation of B cell and B cell lymphoma, J Biol Chem, vol.277, pp.7766-7775, 2002.

K. Takata, Y. Kitamura, D. Yanagisawa, S. Morikawa, M. Morita et al., Microglial transplantation increases amyloid-beta clearance in Alzheimer model rats, FEBS Lett, vol.581, pp.475-478, 2007.

T. Trang, S. Beggs, and M. W. Salter, Brain-derived neurotrophic factor from microglia: A molecular substrate for neuropathic pain, Neuron Glia Biol, vol.7, pp.99-108, 2011.

H. Ueda, J. M. Howson, L. Esposito, J. Heward, H. Snook et al., Nature, vol.423, pp.506-511, 2003.

V. Viglietta, K. Bourcier, G. J. Buckle, B. Healy, H. L. Weiner et al., CTLA4Ig treatment in patients with multiple sclerosis: An open-label, phase 1 clinical trial, Neurology, vol.71, pp.917-924, 2008.

F. Vincenti, B. Charpentier, Y. Vanrenterghem, L. Rostaing, B. Bresnahan et al., A phase III study of belatacept-based immunosuppression regimens versus cyclosporine in renal transplant recipients (BENEFIT study), Am J Transplant, vol.10, pp.535-546, 2010.

F. Vincenti, C. Larsen, A. Durrbach, T. Wekerle, B. Nashan et al., Costimulation blockade with belatacept in renal transplantation, N Engl J Med, vol.353, pp.770-781, 2005.

E. Zeinstra, N. Wilczak, D. Keyser, and J. , Reactive astrocytes in chronic active lesions of multiple sclerosis express co-stimulatory molecules B7-1 and B7-2, J Neuroimmunol, vol.135, pp.166-171, 2003.