H. Jobe and E. Bancalari, Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.163, issue.7, pp.1723-1729, 2001.
DOI : 10.1164/ajrccm.163.7.2011060

E. Baraldi and M. Filippone, Chronic Lung Disease after Premature Birth, New England Journal of Medicine, vol.357, issue.19, pp.1946-1955, 2007.
DOI : 10.1056/NEJMra067279

A. Sharafkhaneh, Pathogenesis of Emphysema: From the Bench to the Bedside, Proc. Am. Thorac. disease in adulthood, pp.718-729, 2008.
DOI : 10.1513/pats.200708-126ET

R. D. Bland, Mechanical ventilation uncouples synthesis and assembly of elastin and increases apoptosis in lungs of newborn mice., American Journal of Physiology - Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology, vol.294, issue.1, pp.3-14, 2008.
DOI : 10.1152/ajplung.00362.2007

D. J. Gottlieb, Urinary desmosine excretion in smokers with and without rapid decline of lung function: the Normative Aging Study., American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.154, issue.5, pp.1290-1295, 1996.
DOI : 10.1164/ajrccm.154.5.8912738

A. Shifren, Elastin protein levels are a vital modifier affecting normal lung development and susceptibility to emphysema, AJP: Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology, vol.292, issue.3, pp.778-787, 2007.
DOI : 10.1152/ajplung.00352.2006

J. M. Mäki, Lysyl Oxidase Is Essential for Normal Development and Function of the Respiratory System and for the Integrity of Elastic and Collagen Fibers in Various Tissues, The American Journal of Pathology, vol.167, issue.4, pp.927-936, 2005.
DOI : 10.1016/S0002-9440(10)61183-2

E. R. Neptune, Dysregulation of TGF-?? activation contributes to pathogenesis in Marfan syndrome, Nature Genetics, vol.33, issue.3, pp.407-411, 2003.
DOI : 10.1038/ng1116

H. Yanagisawa, Fibulin-5 is an elastin-binding protein essential for elastic fibre development in vivo, Nature, vol.415, issue.6868, pp.168-171, 2002.
DOI : 10.1038/415168a

A. H. Van-houwelingen, Induction of lung emphysema is prevented by L-arginine-threonine-arginine, The FASEB Journal, vol.22, issue.9, pp.3403-3408, 2008.
DOI : 10.1096/fj.07-096230

K. R. Stenmark and S. H. Abman, LUNG VASCULAR DEVELOPMENT: Implications for the Pathogenesis of Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia, Annual Review of Physiology, vol.67, issue.1, pp.623-661, 2005.
DOI : 10.1146/annurev.physiol.67.040403.102229

S. A. Mcgrath-morrow, Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Receptor 2 Blockade Disrupts Postnatal Lung Development, American Journal of Respiratory Cell and Molecular Biology, vol.32, issue.5, pp.420-427, 2005.
DOI : 10.1165/rcmb.2004-0287OC

Y. Kasahara, Inhibition of VEGF receptors causes lung cell apoptosis and emphysema, Journal of Clinical Investigation, vol.106, issue.11, pp.1311-1319, 2000.
DOI : 10.1172/JCI10259

K. Tang, Lung-targeted VEGF inactivation leads to an emphysema phenotype in mice, Journal of Applied Physiology, vol.97, issue.4, pp.1559-1566, 2004.
DOI : 10.1152/japplphysiol.00221.2004

Y. Kasahara, Endothelial Cell Death and Decreased Expression of Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor and Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Receptor 2 in Emphysema, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.163, issue.3, pp.737-744, 2001.
DOI : 10.1164/ajrccm.163.3.2002117

A. J. Bhatt, Disrupted Pulmonary Vasculature and Decreased Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor, Flt-1, and TIE-2 in Human Infants Dying with Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.164, issue.10, 1971.
DOI : 10.1164/ajrccm.164.10.2101140

M. E. De-paepe, Growth of Pulmonary Microvasculature in Ventilated Preterm Infants, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.173, issue.2, pp.204-211, 2006.
DOI : 10.1164/rccm.200506-927OC

V. Bhandari, Developmental Regulation of NO-Mediated VEGF-Induced Effects in the Lung, American Journal of Respiratory Cell and Molecular Biology, vol.39, issue.4, pp.420-430, 2008.
DOI : 10.1165/rcmb.2007-0024OC

S. G. Kallapur, Vascular changes after intra-amniotic endotoxin in preterm lamb lungs, AJP: Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology, vol.287, issue.6, pp.1178-1185, 2004.
DOI : 10.1152/ajplung.00049.2004

R. D. Bland, Mechanical ventilation with 40% oxygen reduces pulmonary expression of genes that regulate lung development and impairs alveolar septation in newborn mice, AJP: Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology, vol.293, issue.5, pp.1099-1110, 2007.
DOI : 10.1152/ajplung.00217.2007

B. Thébaud, Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Gene Therapy Increases Survival, Promotes Lung Angiogenesis, and Prevents Alveolar Damage in Hyperoxia-Induced Lung Injury: Evidence That Angiogenesis Participates in Alveolarization, Circulation, vol.112, issue.16, pp.2477-2486, 2005.
DOI : 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.541524

L. Cras and T. D. , VEGF causes pulmonary hemorrhage, hemosiderosis, and air space enlargement in neonatal mice, AJP: Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology, vol.287, issue.1, pp.134-142, 2004.
DOI : 10.1152/ajplung.00050.2004

J. Janér, Pulmonary Endostatin Perinatally and in Lung Injury of the Newborn Infant, PEDIATRICS, vol.119, issue.1, pp.241-246, 2007.
DOI : 10.1542/peds.2005-3039

V. Bhandari, Hyperoxia causes angiopoietin 2???mediated acute lung injury and necrotic cell death, Nature Medicine, vol.8, issue.11, pp.1286-1293, 2006.
DOI : 10.1038/nm1494

Z. H. Aghai, Angiopoietin 2 concentrations in infants developing bronchopulmonary dysplasia: attenuation by dexamethasone, Journal of Perinatology, vol.23, issue.2, pp.149-155, 2008.
DOI : 10.1038/sj.jp.7211886

M. E. De-paepe, Endoglin (CD105) Up-regulation in Pulmonary Microvasculature of Ventilated Preterm Infants, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.178, issue.2, pp.180-187, 2008.
DOI : 10.1164/rccm.200608-1240OC

P. M. Wong, Emphysema in young adult survivors of moderate-to-severe bronchopulmonary dysplasia, European Respiratory Journal, vol.32, issue.2, pp.321-328, 2008.
DOI : 10.1183/09031936.00127107

E. S. Shinwell, Less postnatal steroids, more bronchopulmonary dysplasia: a population-based study in very low birthweight infants, Archives of Disease in Childhood - Fetal and Neonatal Edition, vol.92, issue.1, pp.30-33, 2007.
DOI : 10.1136/adc.2006.094474

R. D. Bland, Inhaled Nitric Oxide Effects on Lung Structure and Function in Chronically Ventilated Preterm Lambs, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.172, issue.7, pp.899-906, 2005.
DOI : 10.1164/rccm.200503-384OC

K. J. Barrington and N. N. Finer, Inhaled nitric oxide for respiratory failure in preterm infants, Cochrane Database Syst. Rev, issue.3, p.509, 2007.

R. Lauterbach, Nebulized pentoxifylline for prevention of bronchopulmonary dysplasia in very low birth weight infants: A pilot clinical study, The Journal of Maternal-Fetal & Neonatal Medicine, vol.36, issue.7, pp.433-438, 2006.
DOI : 10.1136/thx.50.10.1073

L. Liao, CXCR2 Blockade Reduces Radical Formation in Hyperoxia-Exposed Newborn Rat Lung, Pediatric Research, vol.116, issue.3, pp.299-303, 2006.
DOI : 10.1203/01.pdr.0000233058.08200.d6

R. Motterlini, Curcumin, an antioxidant and anti-inflammatory agent, induces heme oxygenase-1 and protects endothelial cells against oxidative stress. Free Radic, Biol. Med, vol.28, pp.1303-1312, 2000.

S. Takahashi, Reversal of elastase-induced pulmonary emphysema and promotion of alveolar epithelial cell proliferation by simvastatin in mice, AJP: Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology, vol.294, issue.5, pp.882-890, 2008.
DOI : 10.1152/ajplung.00238.2007

K. Morimoto, Lovastatin Enhances Clearance of Apoptotic Cells (Efferocytosis) with Implications for Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, The Journal of Immunology, vol.176, issue.12, pp.7657-7665, 2006.
DOI : 10.4049/jimmunol.176.12.7657

T. Shinohara, Adenovirus-Mediated Transfer and Overexpression of Heme Oxygenase 1 cDNA in Lungs Attenuates Elastase-Induced Pulmonary Emphysema in Mice, Human Gene Therapy, vol.16, issue.3, pp.318-327, 2005.
DOI : 10.1089/hum.2005.16.318

Y. P. De-visser, Phosphodiesterase-4 inhibition attenuates pulmonary inflammation in neonatal lung injury, European Respiratory Journal, vol.31, issue.3, pp.633-644, 2008.
DOI : 10.1183/09031936.00071307

C. Méhats, Effects of Phosphodiesterase 4 Inhibition on Alveolarization and Hyperoxia Toxicity in Newborn Rats, PLoS ONE, vol.67, issue.10, p.3445, 2008.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pone.0003445.s001

H. Mori, Phosphodiesterase 4 inhibitor GPD-1116 markedly attenuates the development of cigarette smoke-induced emphysema in senescence-accelerated mice P1 strain, AJP: Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology, vol.294, issue.2, pp.196-204, 2008.
DOI : 10.1152/ajplung.00173.2007

P. A. Martorana, Roflumilast Fully Prevents Emphysema in Mice Chronically Exposed to Cigarette Smoke, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.172, issue.7, pp.848-853, 2005.
DOI : 10.1164/rccm.200411-1549OC

F. Ladha, Sildenafil Improves Alveolar Growth and Pulmonary Hypertension in Hyperoxia-induced Lung Injury, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.172, issue.6, pp.750-756, 2005.
DOI : 10.1164/rccm.200503-510OC

I. Petrache, -Antitrypsin in the Prevention of Pulmonary Emphysema, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.173, issue.11, pp.1222-1228, 2006.
DOI : 10.1164/rccm.200512-1842OC

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/in2p3-00668268

A. Churg, Effect of an MMP-9/MMP-12 inhibitor on smoke-induced emphysema and airway remodelling in guinea pigs, Thorax, vol.62, issue.8, pp.706-713, 2007.
DOI : 10.1136/thx.2006.068353

G. D. Massaro and D. Massaro, Postnatal treatment with retinoic acid increases the number of pulmonary alveoli in rats, Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell. Mol. Physiol, vol.270, pp.305-310, 1996.

S. Mcgowan, Mice Bearing Deletions of Retinoic Acid Receptors Demonstrate Reduced Lung Elastin and Alveolar Numbers, American Journal of Respiratory Cell and Molecular Biology, vol.23, issue.2, pp.162-167, 2000.
DOI : 10.1165/ajrcmb.23.2.3904

K. Spears, Low plasma retinol concentrations increase the risk of developing bronchopulmonary dysplasia and long-term respiratory disability in very-low-birth-weight infants, Am. J. Clin. Nutr, vol.80, pp.1589-1594, 2004.

A. Morabia, SERUM RETINOL AND AIRWAY OBSTRUCTION, American Journal of Epidemiology, vol.132, issue.1, pp.77-82, 1990.
DOI : 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a115645

G. D. Massaro and D. Massaro, Retinoic acid treatment partially rescues failed septation in rats and in mice, Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell. Mol. Physiol, vol.278, pp.955-960, 2000.

K. A. Veness-meehan, -induced inhibition of lung septation, American Journal of Physiology - Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology, vol.283, issue.5, pp.971-980, 2002.
DOI : 10.1152/ajplung.00266.2001

S. J. Cho, Retinoic Acid and Erythropoietin Maintain Alveolar Development in Mice Treated with an Angiogenesis Inhibitor, American Journal of Respiratory Cell and Molecular Biology, vol.33, issue.6, pp.622-628, 2005.
DOI : 10.1165/rcmb.2005-0050OC

G. D. Massaro and D. Massaro, Retinoic acid treatment abrogates elastase-induced pulmonary emphysema in rats, Nature Medicine, vol.143, issue.6, pp.675-677, 1997.
DOI : 10.1146/annurev.ph.58.030196.000445

M. Fujita, Retinoic acid fails to reverse emphysema in adult mouse models, Thorax, vol.59, issue.3, pp.224-230, 2004.
DOI : 10.1136/thx.2003.010785

R. A. Pierce, Retinoids Increase Lung Elastin Expression But Fail to Alter Morphology or Angiogenesis Genes in Premature Ventilated Baboons, Pediatric Research, vol.106, issue.6, pp.703-709, 2007.
DOI : 10.1203/pdr.0b013e318053661d

B. A. Darlow and P. J. Graham, Vitamin A supplementation to prevent mortality and short and long-term morbidity in very low birthweight infants, Cochrane Database Syst. Rev, issue.4, p.501, 2007.

M. D. Roth, Feasibility of Retinoids for the Treatment of Emphysema Study, Chest, vol.130, issue.5, pp.1334-1345, 2006.
DOI : 10.1378/chest.130.5.1334

J. R. Muindi, -Retinoic Acid in Pulmonary Emphysema Patients, for the FORTE Study Investigators, pp.96-107, 2008.
DOI : 10.1177/0091270007309701

L. Plantier, Dysregulation of elastin expression by fibroblasts in pulmonary emphysema: role of cellular retinoic acid binding protein 2, Thorax, vol.63, issue.11, pp.1012-1017, 2008.
DOI : 10.1136/thx.2007.093302

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/inserm-00351011

X. Yan, Retinoic acid induces nonuniform alveolar septal growth after right pneumonectomy, Journal of Applied Physiology, vol.96, issue.3, 2004.
DOI : 10.1152/japplphysiol.00771.2003

P. Lindahl, Alveogenesis failure in PDGF-A-deficient mice is coupled to lack of distal spreading of alveolar smooth muscle cell progenitors during lung development, Development, vol.124, pp.3943-3953, 1997.

S. Padela, Hepatocyte Growth Factor Is Required for Alveologenesis in the Neonatal Rat, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.172, issue.7, pp.907-914, 2005.
DOI : 10.1164/rccm.200504-567OC

M. Weinstein, FGFR-3 and FGFR-4 function cooperatively to direct alveogenesis in the murine lung, Development, vol.125, pp.3615-3623, 1998.

B. Chailley-heu, FGF-18 is upregulated in the postnatal rat lung and enhances elastogenesis in myofibroblasts, AJP: Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology, vol.288, issue.1, pp.43-51, 2005.
DOI : 10.1152/ajplung.00096.2004

C. Danan, High Concentrations of Keratinocyte Growth Factor in Airways of Premature Infants Predicted Absence of Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.165, issue.10, pp.1384-1387, 2002.
DOI : 10.1164/rccm.200112-134BC

L. Plantier, Defect of hepatocyte growth factor production by fibroblasts in human pulmonary emphysema, AJP: Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology, vol.288, issue.4, pp.641-647, 2005.
DOI : 10.1152/ajplung.00249.2004

L. Frank, Protective Effect of Keratinocyte Growth Factor against Lung Abnormalities Associated with Hyperoxia in Prematurely Born Rats, Neonatology, vol.83, issue.4, pp.263-272, 2003.
DOI : 10.1159/000069480

Y. Ohki, Hepatocyte Growth Factor Treatment Improves Alveolarization in a Newborn Murine Model of Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia, Neonatology, vol.95, issue.4, pp.332-338, 2008.
DOI : 10.1159/000187651

N. Shigemura, Amelioration of Pulmonary Emphysema by In Vivo Gene Transfection With Hepatocyte Growth Factor in Rats, Circulation, vol.111, issue.11, pp.1407-1414, 2005.
DOI : 10.1161/01.CIR.0000158433.89103.85

L. Plantier, Keratinocyte growth factor protects against elastase-induced pulmonary emphysema in mice, AJP: Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology, vol.293, issue.5, pp.1230-1239, 2007.
DOI : 10.1152/ajplung.00460.2006

L. B. Clerch, DNA microarray analysis of neonatal mouse lung connects regulation of KDR with dexamethasone-induced inhibition of alveolar formation, AJP: Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology, vol.286, issue.2, pp.411-419, 2004.
DOI : 10.1152/ajplung.00306.2003

O. Boucherat, Gene expression profiling in lung fibroblasts reveals new players in alveolarization, Physiological Genomics, vol.32, issue.1, pp.128-141, 2007.
DOI : 10.1152/physiolgenomics.00108.2007

D. Massaro, Rapid onset of gene expression in lung, supportive of formation of alveolar septa, induced by refeeding mice after calorie restriction, AJP: Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology, vol.292, issue.5, pp.1313-1326, 2007.
DOI : 10.1152/ajplung.00146.2006

G. Yang, Maturational differences in lung NF-??B activation and their role in tolerance to hyperoxia, Journal of Clinical Investigation, vol.114, issue.5, pp.669-678, 2004.
DOI : 10.1172/JCI200419300

C. W. Rayman, Developmental differences in the responses of IL-6 and IL-13 transgenic mice exposed to hyperoxia, Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell. Mol. Physiol, vol.293, pp.142-150, 2007.

M. Ghanei and A. A. Harandi, Long Term Consequences from Exposure to Sulfur Mustard: A Review, Inhalation Toxicology, vol.79, issue.3, pp.451-456, 2007.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1442-2050.2006.00580.x

T. H. March, ANIMAL MODELS OF EMPHYSEMA AND THEIR RELEVANCE TO STUDIES OF PARTICLE-INDUCED DISEASE, Inhalation Toxicology, vol.142, issue.1, pp.155-187, 2000.
DOI : 10.1164/ajrccm/138.1.129

S. D. Shapiro, Proteolysis in the lung, European Respiratory Journal, vol.22, issue.Supplement 44, pp.30-32, 2003.
DOI : 10.1183/09031936.03.00000903a

D. Cataldo, MMP-2- and MMP-9-Linked Gelatinolytic Activity in the Sputum from Patients with Asthma and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, International Archives of Allergy and Immunology, vol.123, issue.3, pp.259-267, 2000.
DOI : 10.1159/000024452