D. and B. Hospital, Lille 59000, France. 5 Qatar Biomedical Research Institute, Qatar Foundation, Doha 5825, Qatar. 6 Fleurbaix-Laventie Association, Laventie 62840, France. 7 Inserm CIE 05 ? Department of Clinical Epidemiology, UVSQ-UPS, Villejuif 94807, France. 13 UF8832 -Biochimie Automatisée

T. Mifflin, G. Hortin, and D. Bruns, Electrophoretic assays of amylase isoenzymes and isoforms, Clin Lab Med, vol.6, pp.583-99, 1986.

G. Perry, N. Dominy, K. Claw, A. Lee, H. Fiegler et al., Diet and the evolution of human amylase gene copy number variation, Nature Genetics, vol.16, issue.10, pp.1256-60, 2007.
DOI : 10.1038/ng2123

M. Falchi, E. Moustafa, J. Takousis, P. Pesce, F. Bonnefond et al., Low copy number of the salivary amylase gene predisposes to obesity, Nature Genetics, vol.363, issue.5, pp.492-499, 2014.
DOI : 10.1093/bioinformatics/btq340

H. Viljakainen, J. Andersson-assarsson, M. Armenio, M. Pekkinen, M. Pettersson et al., Low Copy Number of the AMY1 Locus Is Associated with Early-Onset Female Obesity in Finland, PLOS ONE, vol.111, issue.7, 2015.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pone.0131883.s001

M. Marcovecchio, R. Florio, F. Verginelli, D. Lellis, L. Capelli et al., Low AMY1 Gene Copy Number Is Associated with Increased Body Mass Index in Prepubertal Boys, PLOS ONE, vol.8, issue.5, 2016.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pone.0154961.s001

Y. Choi, Y. Nam, J. Yun, J. Park, B. Cho et al., ) gene copy??numbers and insulin resistance in asymptomatic Korean men, Diabetic Medicine, vol.58, issue.Suppl 6, pp.1588-95, 2015.
DOI : 10.1111/dme.12808

C. Usher, R. Handsaker, T. Esko, M. Tuke, M. Weedon et al., Structural forms of the human amylase locus and their relationships to SNPs, haplotypes and obesity, Nature Genetics, vol.316, issue.8, pp.921-926, 2015.
DOI : 10.1086/519795

R. Yong, S. Mustaffa, P. Wasan, L. Sheng, C. Marshall et al., does not Associate with Obesity in two East Asian Cohorts, Human Mutation, vol.40, issue.7, pp.669-78, 2016.
DOI : 10.1002/humu.22996

M. Mejía-benítez, A. Bonnefond, L. Yengo, M. Huyvaert, A. Dechaume et al., Beneficial effect of a high number of copies of salivary amylase AMY1 gene on obesity risk in Mexican children, Diabetologia, vol.142, issue.2, pp.290-294, 2015.
DOI : 10.1007/s00125-014-3441-3

D. Carpenter, S. Dhar, L. Mitchell, B. Fu, J. Tyson et al., Obesity, starch digestion and amylase: association between copy number variants at human salivary (AMY1) and pancreatic (AMY2) amylase genes, Human Molecular Genetics, vol.24, issue.12, pp.3472-80, 2015.
DOI : 10.1093/hmg/ddv098
URL : http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4498156

L. Boettger, R. Salem, R. Handsaker, G. Peloso, S. Kathiresan et al., Recurring exon deletions in the HP (haptoglobin) gene contribute to lower blood cholesterol levels, Nature Genetics, vol.263, issue.4, pp.359-66, 2016.
DOI : 10.1038/ng1847

S. White, Counting copy number and calories, Nature Genetics, vol.47, issue.8, pp.852-855, 2015.
DOI : 10.1038/nature13907

A. Mandel and P. Breslin, High Endogenous Salivary Amylase Activity Is Associated with Improved Glycemic Homeostasis following Starch Ingestion in Adults, Journal of Nutrition, vol.142, issue.5, pp.853-861, 2012.
DOI : 10.3945/jn.111.156984

K. Nakajima, T. Nemoto, T. Muneyuki, M. Kakei, H. Fuchigami et al., Low serum amylase in association with metabolic syndrome and diabetes: A community-based study, Cardiovascular Diabetology, vol.10, issue.1, p.34, 2011.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1559-4572.2008.00024.x

B. Parks, E. Nam, E. Org, E. Kostem, F. Norheim et al., Genetic Control of Obesity and Gut Microbiota Composition in Response to High-Fat, High-Sucrose Diet in Mice, Cell Metabolism, vol.17, issue.1, pp.141-52, 2013.
DOI : 10.1016/j.cmet.2012.12.007

B. Balkau, E. Eschwege, J. Tichet, and M. Marre, Proposed criteria for the diagnosis of diabetes: evidence from a French epidemiological study (D, E.S.I.R.). Diabetes Metab, vol.23, pp.428-462, 1997.

I. Wolowczuk, B. Hennart, A. Leloire, A. Bessede, M. Soichot et al., Tryptophan metabolism activation by indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase in adipose tissue of obese women: an attempt to maintain immune homeostasis and vascular tone, AJP: Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology, vol.303, issue.2, pp.135-178, 2012.
DOI : 10.1152/ajpregu.00373.2011

J. Leger, C. Levy-marchal, J. Bloch, A. Pinet, D. Chevenne et al., Reduced final height and indications for insulin resistance in 20 year olds born small for gestational age: regional cohort study, BMJ, vol.315, issue.7104, pp.341-348, 1997.
DOI : 10.1136/bmj.315.7104.341

M. Romon, L. Lafay, J. Bresson, J. Oppert, J. Borys et al., Relationships between physical activity and plasma leptin levels in healthy children: the Fleurbaix???Laventie Ville Sant?? II Study, International Journal of Obesity, vol.28, issue.10, pp.1227-1259, 2004.
DOI : 10.1038/sj.ijo.0802725

A. Evans, C. Dehaven, T. Barrett, M. Mitchell, and E. Milgram, Integrated, Nontargeted Ultrahigh Performance Liquid Chromatography/Electrospray Ionization Tandem Mass Spectrometry Platform for the Identification and Relative Quantification of the Small-Molecule Complement of Biological Systems, Analytical Chemistry, vol.81, issue.16, pp.6656-67, 2009.
DOI : 10.1021/ac901536h

J. Cheng, A. Joyce, K. Yates, B. Aouizerat, and A. Sanyal, Metabolomic Profiling to Identify Predictors of Response to Vitamin E for Non-Alcoholic Steatohepatitis (NASH), PLoS ONE, vol.7, issue.9, p.44106, 2012.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pone.0044106.t003

S. Moore, C. Matthews, J. Sampson, R. Stolzenberg-solomon, W. Zheng et al., Human metabolic correlates of body mass index, Metabolomics, vol.162, issue.11, pp.259-69, 2014.
DOI : 10.1007/s11306-013-0574-1

M. Vaxillaire, L. Yengo, S. Lobbens, G. Rocheleau, E. Eury et al., Type 2 diabetes-related genetic risk scores associated with variations in fasting plasma glucose and development of impaired glucose homeostasis in the prospective DESIR study, Diabetologia, vol.21, issue.12, pp.1601-1611, 2014.
DOI : 10.1007/s00125-014-3277-x

O. Ahmad, J. Morris, M. Mujammami, V. Forgetta, A. Leong et al., A Mendelian randomization study of the effect of type-2 diabetes on coronary heart disease, Nature Communications, vol.21, p.7060, 2015.
DOI : 10.1038/ncomms8060

T. Fall, W. Xie, W. Poon, H. Yaghootkar, R. Mägi et al., Using Genetic Variants to Assess the Relationship Between Circulating Lipids and Type 2 Diabetes, Diabetes, vol.64, issue.7, pp.2676-84, 2015.
DOI : 10.2337/db14-1710

A. Locke, B. Kahali, S. Berndt, A. Justice, T. Pers et al., Genetic studies of body mass index yield new insights for obesity biology, Nature, vol.47, issue.7538, pp.197-206, 2015.
DOI : 10.1038/nature14177

J. Bowden, D. Smith, G. Burgess, and S. , Mendelian randomization with invalid instruments: effect estimation and bias detection through Egger regression, International Journal of Epidemiology, vol.44, issue.2
DOI : 10.1093/ije/dyv080
URL : http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4469799

C. Elks, M. Den-hoed, J. Zhao, S. Sharp, N. Wareham et al., Variability in the Heritability of Body Mass Index: A Systematic Review and Meta-Regression, Frontiers in Endocrinology, vol.3, p.29, 2012.
DOI : 10.3389/fendo.2012.00029

C. Haworth, S. Carnell, E. Meaburn, O. Davis, R. Plomin et al., Increasing Heritability of BMI and Stronger Associations With the FTO Gene Over Childhood, Obesity, vol.318, issue.12, pp.2663-2671, 2008.
DOI : 10.1038/oby.2008.434

M. Story and J. Stang, Nutrition Needs of Adolescents. Guidelines for Adolescent Nutrition Services. Chapter 3, pp.21-34, 2005.

M. Aguirre, D. Jonkers, F. Troost, G. Roeselers, and K. Venema, In Vitro Characterization of the Impact of Different Substrates on Metabolite Production, Energy Extraction and Composition of Gut Microbiota from Lean and Obese Subjects, PLoS ONE, vol.59, issue.11, p.113864, 2014.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pone.0113864.s002

H. Pedersen, V. Gudmundsdottir, H. Nielsen, T. Hyotylainen, T. Nielsen et al., Human gut microbes impact host serum metabolome and insulin sensitivity, Nature, vol.36, issue.7612, pp.376-81, 2016.
DOI : 10.1038/nature18646
URL : https://lirias.kuleuven.be/bitstream/123456789/546181/3/2016128.pdf