H. Friedman, C. Newton, and T. Klein, Microbial Infections, Immunomodulation, and Drugs of Abuse, Clinical Microbiology Reviews, vol.16, issue.2, pp.209-219, 2003.
DOI : 10.1128/CMR.16.2.209-219.2003

R. Macgregor and D. Louria, Alcohol and infection, Curr Clin Top Infect Dis, vol.17, pp.291-315, 1997.

M. Moss, Epidemiology of Sepsis: Race, Sex, and Chronic Alcohol Abuse, Clinical Infectious Diseases, vol.41, issue.Supplement 7, pp.490-497, 2005.
DOI : 10.1086/432003

M. Bird, M. Choudhry, and P. Molina, Alcohol and trauma: a summary of the Satellite Symposium at the 30th Annual Meeting of the Shock Society, Alcohol, vol.43, issue.3, pp.247-252, 2009.
DOI : 10.1016/j.alcohol.2008.12.006

C. Brun-buisson, P. Meshaka, and P. Pinton, EPISEPSIS: a reappraisal of the epidemiology and outcome of severe sepsis in French intensive care units, Intensive Care Med, vol.30, issue.4, pp.580-588, 2004.

M. De-wit, D. Jones, and C. Sessler, Alcohol-Use Disorders in the Critically Ill Patient, Chest, vol.138, issue.4, pp.994-1003, 2010.
DOI : 10.1378/chest.09-1425

M. Moss, B. Bucher, and F. Moore, The role of chronic alcohol abuse in the development of acute respiratory distress syndrome in adults, JAMA, vol.75, issue.1, pp.50-54, 1996.

M. Moss and E. Burnham, Alcohol abuse in the critically ill patient, The Lancet, vol.368, issue.9554, pp.2231-2242, 2006.
DOI : 10.1016/S0140-6736(06)69490-7

P. Mandrekar, S. Bala, and D. Catalano, The Opposite Effects of Acute and Chronic Alcohol on Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Inflammation Are Linked to IRAK-M in Human Monocytes, The Journal of Immunology, vol.183, issue.2, pp.1320-1327, 2009.
DOI : 10.4049/jimmunol.0803206

G. Szabo and P. Mandrekar, A Recent Perspective on Alcohol, Immunity, and Host Defense, Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, vol.32, issue.2, pp.220-232, 2009.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2008.00842.x

L. Brown, R. Cook, and T. Jerrells, Acute and Chronic Alcohol Abuse Modulate Immunity, Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, vol.28, issue.1, pp.1624-1631, 2006.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2001.tb02233.x

R. Cook, Alcohol abuse, alcoholism, and damage to the immune system?a review, Alcohol Clin Exp Res, vol.22, issue.9, pp.1927-1942, 1998.

L. Diaz, A. Montero, and M. Gonzalez-gross, Influence of alcohol consumption on immunological status: a review, European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol.56, pp.50-53, 2002.
DOI : 10.1038/sj.ejcn.1601486

E. Kovacs and T. Jerrells, Alcohol and immunology: introduction to and summary of the 2003 Alcohol and Immunology Research Interest Group (AIRIG) meeting, Alcohol, vol.33, issue.3, pp.171-174, 2004.
DOI : 10.1016/j.alcohol.2004.06.006

B. Lu, A. Geurts, C. Poirier, and D. Petit, Generation of rat mutants using a coat color-tagged Sleeping Beauty transposon system, Mammalian Genome, vol.302, issue.5, p.338346, 2007.
DOI : 10.1007/s00335-007-9025-5

S. Verma, C. Alexander, and M. Carlson, B-Cell Studies in Chronic Ethanol Mice, Methods Mol Biol, vol.447, pp.295-323, 2008.
DOI : 10.1007/978-1-59745-242-7_20

T. Waldschmidt, R. Cook, and E. Kovacs, Alcohol and inflammation and immune responses: summary of the 2006 Alcohol and Immunology Research Interest Group (AIRIG) meeting, Alcohol, vol.42, issue.2, pp.137-142, 2008.
DOI : 10.1016/j.alcohol.2007.11.003

X. Zhao, L. Marrero, and K. Song, Acute Alcohol Inhibits TNF-?? Processing in Human Monocytes by Inhibiting TNF/TNF-??-Converting Enzyme Interactions in the Cell Membrane, The Journal of Immunology, vol.170, issue.6, pp.2923-2931, 2003.
DOI : 10.4049/jimmunol.170.6.2923

A. Lau, V. Von-dossow, and M. Sander, Alcohol Use Disorder and Perioperative Immune Dysfunction, Anesthesia & Analgesia, vol.108, issue.3, pp.916-920, 2009.
DOI : 10.1213/ane.0b013e318193fd89

C. Spies, V. Eggers, and G. Szabo, Intervention at the Level of the Neuroendocrine???Immune Axis and Postoperative Pneumonia Rate in Long-term Alcoholics, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol.174, issue.4, pp.408-414, 2006.
DOI : 10.1164/rccm.200506-907OC

C. Spies, V. Von-dossow, and V. Eggers, Altered Cell-mediated Immunity and Increased Postoperative Infection Rate in Long-term Alcoholic Patients, Anesthesiology, vol.100, issue.5, pp.1088-1100, 2004.
DOI : 10.1097/00000542-200405000-00010

M. Moss and E. Burnham, Chronic alcohol abuse, acute respiratory distress syndrome, and multiple organ dysfunction, Critical Care Medicine, vol.31, issue.Supplement, pp.207-212, 2003.
DOI : 10.1097/01.CCM.0000057845.77458.25

V. Von-dossow, C. Schilling, and S. Beller, Altered immune parameters in chronic alcoholic patients at the onset of infection and of septic shock, Critical Care, vol.8, issue.5, pp.312-321, 2004.
DOI : 10.1186/cc2911

D. Fiellin, M. Reid, O. Connor, and P. , Outpatient Management of Patients with Alcohol Problems, Annals of Internal Medicine, vol.133, issue.10, pp.815-827, 2000.
DOI : 10.7326/0003-4819-133-10-200011210-00015

O. Connor, P. Schottenfeld, and R. , Patients with Alcohol Problems, New England Journal of Medicine, vol.338, issue.9, pp.592-602, 1998.
DOI : 10.1056/NEJM199802263380907

A. Gacouin, F. Legay, and C. Camus, At-risk drinkers are at higher risk to acquire a bacterial infection during an intensive care unit stay than abstinent or moderate drinkers*, Critical Care Medicine, vol.36, issue.6, pp.1735-1741, 2008.
DOI : 10.1097/CCM.0b013e318174dd75

D. Fiellin, M. Reid, O. Connor, and P. , Screening for Alcohol Problems in Primary Care, Archives of Internal Medicine, vol.160, issue.13, pp.1977-1989, 2000.
DOI : 10.1001/archinte.160.13.1977

R. Saitz, Unhealthy Alcohol Use, New England Journal of Medicine, vol.352, issue.6, pp.596-607, 2005.
DOI : 10.1056/NEJMcp042262

R. Bone, R. Balk, and F. Cerra, Definitions for Sepsis and Organ Failure and Guidelines for the Use of Innovative Therapies in Sepsis, The ACCP/ SCCM consensus conference committee, pp.1644-1655, 1992.
DOI : 10.1378/chest.101.6.1644

W. Willett, W. Dietz, and G. Colditz, Guidelines for Healthy Weight, New England Journal of Medicine, vol.341, issue.6, pp.427-434, 1999.
DOI : 10.1056/NEJM199908053410607

M. Roussel, C. Benard, and B. Ly-sunnaram, Refining the white blood cell differential: The first flow cytometry routine application, Cytometry Part A, vol.20, issue.6, pp.552-563, 2010.
DOI : 10.1002/cyto.a.20893

J. Hoffmann, Neutrophil CD64: a diagnostic marker for infection and sepsis, Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine, vol.47, issue.8, pp.903-916, 2009.
DOI : 10.1515/CCLM.2009.224

D. Stoltz, S. Nelson, and J. Kolls, In vitro ethanol suppresses alveolar macrophage TNF-alpha during simian immunodeficiency virus infection

D. Boe, S. Nelson, and P. Zhang, Alcohol-induced suppression of lung chemokine production and the host defense response to Streptococcus pneumoniae, Alcohol Clin Exp Res, vol.27, issue.11, pp.1838-1845, 2003.

C. Mason, E. Dobard, and P. Zhang, Alcohol Exacerbates Murine Pulmonary Tuberculosis, Infection and Immunity, vol.72, issue.5, pp.2556-2563, 2004.
DOI : 10.1128/IAI.72.5.2556-2563.2004

URL : http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC387844

F. Laso, J. Madruga, and A. Lopez, Distribution of Peripheral Blood Lymphoid Subsets in Alcoholic Liver Cirrhosis: Influence of Ethanol Intake, Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, vol.18, issue.9, pp.1564-1568, 1996.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1530-0277.1996.tb01700.x

F. Laso, J. Madruga, and A. Lopez, Abnormalities of Peripheral Blood T Lymphocytes and Natural Killer Cells in Alcoholic Hepatitis Persist after a 3-Month Withdrawal Period, Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, vol.13, issue.4, pp.672-676, 1997.
DOI : 10.1046/j.1365-2249.1996.d01-621.x

A. De-roux, M. Cavalcanti, and M. Marcos, Impact of Alcohol Abuse in the Etiology and Severity of Community-Acquired Pneumonia, Chest, vol.129, issue.5, pp.1219-1225, 2006.
DOI : 10.1378/chest.129.5.1219

M. Moss, P. Parsons, and K. Steinberg, Chronic alcohol abuse is associated with an increased incidence of acute respiratory distress syndrome and severity of multiple organ dysfunction in patients with septic shock, Critical Care Medicine, vol.31, issue.3, pp.31869-877, 2003.
DOI : 10.1097/01.CCM.0000055389.64497.11

C. Spies, B. Neuner, and T. Neumann, Intercurrent complications in chronic alcoholic men admitted to the intensive care unit following trauma, Intensive Care Medicine, vol.18, issue.4, pp.286-293, 1996.
DOI : 10.1007/BF01700448