C. Roux, A. Rouzioux, B. Sobel, F. Spire, V. Tremolieres et al., All authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest. We especially thank all physicians and nurses who were involved in the cohort and all patients living with HIV who took part in this study

N. Bobrova, A. Sarang, R. Stuikyte, and K. Lezhentsev, Obstacles in provision of anti-retroviral treatment to drug users in Central and Eastern Europe Roux et al http://www.harmreductionjournal.com/content/8/1/31 and Central Asia: a regional overview, Harm Reduction Journal Int J Drug Policy, vol.8, issue.184, pp.31313-318, 2007.

E. Krupitsky, E. Zvartau, G. Karandashova, N. Horton, K. Schoolwerth et al., The onset of HIV infection in the Leningrad region of Russia: a focus on drug and alcohol dependence, HIV Medicine, vol.15, issue.3, pp.30-33, 2004.
DOI : 10.1097/00002030-200101050-00012

I. Van-beek, Case study: Accessible primary health care???A foundation to improve health outcomes for people who inject drugs, International Journal of Drug Policy, vol.18, issue.4, pp.329-332, 2007.
DOI : 10.1016/j.drugpo.2006.11.005

M. Gossop, J. Marsden, D. Stewart, and S. Treacy, Reduced injection risk and sexual risk behaviours after drug misuse treatment: Results from the National Treatment Outcome Research Study, AIDS Care, vol.29, issue.1, pp.77-93, 2002.
DOI : 10.1080/09540129208251618

J. Emmanuelli and J. Desenclos, Harm reduction interventions, behaviours and associated health outcomes in France, 1996-2003, Addiction, vol.91, issue.11, pp.1690-1700, 1996.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2005.01271.x

P. Lawrinson, R. Ali, A. Buavirat, S. Chiamwongpaet, S. Dvoryak et al., Key findings from the WHO collaborative study on substitution therapy for opioid dependence and HIV/AIDS, Addiction, vol.22, issue.9, pp.1484-1492, 2008.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2008.02249.x

P. Roux, M. Carrieri, V. Villes, P. Dellamonica, I. Poizot-martin et al., The impact of methadone or buprenorphine treatment and ongoing injection on highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) adherence: evidence from the MANIF2000 cohort study, Addiction, vol.38, issue.11, pp.1828-1836, 2008.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2008.02323.x

E. Mills, J. Nachega, D. Bangsberg, S. Singh, B. Rachlis et al., Adherence to HAART: A Systematic Review of Developed and Developing Nation Patient-Reported Barriers and Facilitators, PLoS Medicine, vol.24, issue.11, p.438, 2006.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pmed.0030438.t007

M. Malta, S. Strathdee, M. Magnanini, and F. Bastos, Adherence to antiretroviral therapy for human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immune deficiency syndrome among drug users: a systematic review, Addiction, vol.101, issue.8, pp.1242-1257, 2008.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2008.02269.x

F. Maggiolo, M. Airoldi, H. Kleinloog, A. Callegaro, V. Ravasio et al., Effect of Adherence to HAART on Virologic Outcome and on the Selection of Resistance-Conferring Mutations in NNRTI- or PI-Treated Patients, HIV Clinical Trials, vol.5, issue.1, pp.282-292, 2007.
DOI : 10.1128/AAC.45.4.1086-1093.2001

G. Lucas, L. Cheever, R. Chaisson, and R. Moore, Detrimental Effects of Continued Illicit Drug Use on the Treatment of HIV-1 Infection, JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, vol.27, issue.3, pp.251-259, 2001.
DOI : 10.1097/00126334-200107010-00006

M. Carrieri, J. Moatti, D. Vlahov, Y. Obadia, C. Reynaud-maurupt et al., Access to antiretroviral treatment among French HIV infected injection drug users: the influence of continued drug use. MANIF 2000 Study Group, Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health, vol.53, issue.1, pp.4-8, 1999.
DOI : 10.1136/jech.53.1.4

A. Bouhnik, M. Chesney, P. Carrieri, H. Gallais, J. Moreau et al., Nonadherence Among HIV-Infected Injecting Drug Users: The Impact of Social Instability, JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, vol.31, pp.31-149, 2002.
DOI : 10.1097/00126334-200212153-00013

M. Carrieri, D. Rey, A. Loundou, G. Lepeu, A. Sobel et al., Evaluation of buprenorphine maintenance treatment in a French cohort of HIV-infected injecting drug users, Drug and Alcohol Dependence, vol.72, issue.1, pp.13-21, 2003.
DOI : 10.1016/S0376-8716(03)00189-3

J. Gallant, J. Somani, R. Chaisson, D. Stanton, M. Smith et al., Diagnostic accuracy of three clinical case definitions for advanced HIV disease, AIDS, vol.6, issue.3, pp.295-299, 1992.
DOI : 10.1097/00002030-199203000-00006

R. Fuhrer, F. Rouillon, and J. Lellouch, Diagnostic reliability among French psychiatrists using DSM-III criteria, Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, vol.4, issue.1, pp.12-16, 1986.
DOI : 10.2307/2529310

L. Radloff, The CES-D Scale: A Self-Report Depression Scale for Research in the General Population, Applied Psychological Measurement, vol.1, issue.3, pp.385-491, 1977.
DOI : 10.1177/014662167700100306

M. Carrieri, P. Roux, J. Cohen, I. Ravaux, P. Dellamonica et al., Self-reported side effects in buprenorphine and methadone patients receiving antiretroviral therapy: results from the MANIF 2000 cohort study, Addiction, vol.20, issue.Suppl 1, pp.1052160-2168, 2010.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2010.03108.x

A. Price, M. Ilgen, and A. Bohnert, Prevalence and correlates of nonmedical use of prescription opioids in patients seen in a residential drug and alcohol treatment program, Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, vol.41, issue.2, pp.208-214, 2011.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jsat.2011.02.003

A. Young, J. Havens, and C. Leukefeld, Route of administration for illicit prescription opioids: A comparison of rural and urban drug users, Harm Reduction Journal, vol.7, issue.1, p.24, 2010.
DOI : 10.1186/1477-7517-7-24

A. Winstock and T. Lea, Diversion and injection of methadone and buprenorphine among clients in public opioid treatment clinics in New South Wales, Australia. Subst Use Misuse, pp.240-252, 2010.

P. Roux, V. Villes, J. Blanche, D. Bry, B. Spire et al., Buprenorphine in primary care: Risk factors for treatment injection and implications for clinical management, Drug and Alcohol Dependence, vol.97, issue.1-2, pp.105-113, 2008.
DOI : 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2008.03.025

B. Spire, G. Lucas, and M. Carrieri, Adherence to HIV treatment among IDUs and the role of opioid substitution treatment (OST), International Journal of Drug Policy, vol.18, issue.4, pp.262-270, 2007.
DOI : 10.1016/j.drugpo.2006.12.014
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/inserm-00167847

A. Bouhnik, M. Carrieri, D. Rey, B. Spire, J. Gastaut et al., Drug injection cessation among HIV-infected injecting drug users, Addictive Behaviors, vol.29, issue.6, pp.1189-1197, 2004.
DOI : 10.1016/j.addbeh.2004.01.006

F. Altice, F. Mostashari, and G. Friedland, Trust and the Acceptance of and Adherence to Antiretroviral Therapy, JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, vol.28, issue.1, pp.47-58, 2001.
DOI : 10.1097/00042560-200109010-00008

A. Williamson, S. Darke, J. Ross, and M. Teesson, The effect of persistence of cocaine use on 12-month outcomes for the treatment of heroin dependence, Drug and Alcohol Dependence, vol.81, issue.3, pp.293-300, 2006.
DOI : 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2005.08.010

B. Brands, J. Blake, D. Marsh, B. Sproule, R. Jeyapalan et al., The Impact of Benzodiazepine Use on Methadone Maintenance Treatment Outcomes, Journal of Addictive Diseases, vol.20, issue.3, pp.37-48, 2008.
DOI : 10.1081/JA-120016225

J. Parr, D. Kavanagh, L. Cahill, G. Mitchell, and D. Mc, Effectiveness of current treatment approaches for benzodiazepine discontinuation: a meta-analysis, Addiction, vol.62, issue.1, pp.13-24, 2009.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2008.02364.x

F. Eiroa-orosa, C. Haasen, U. Verthein, C. Dilg, I. Schafer et al., Benzodiazepine use among patients in heroin-assisted vs. methadone maintenance treatment: Findings of the German randomized controlled trial, Drug and Alcohol Dependence, vol.112, issue.3, pp.226-233, 2010.
DOI : 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2010.06.013

G. Vidal-trecan, I. Varescon, N. Nabet, and A. Boissonnas, Intravenous use of prescribed sublingual buprenorphine tablets by drug users receiving maintenance therapy in France, Drug and Alcohol Dependence, vol.69, issue.2, pp.175-181, 2003.
DOI : 10.1016/S0376-8716(02)00312-5

P. Peretti-watel, B. Spire, F. Lert, and Y. Obadia, Drug use patterns and adherence to treatment among HIV-positive patients: evidence from a large sample of French outpatients (ANRS-EN12-VESPA 2003), Drug and Alcohol Dependence, vol.82, issue.1, pp.82-71, 2006.
DOI : 10.1016/S0376-8716(06)80012-8
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/inserm-00086765

M. Gossop, J. Marsden, D. Stewart, and S. Treacy, Outcomes after methadone maintenance and methadone reduction treatments: two-year follow-up results from the National Treatment Outcome Research Study, Drug and Alcohol Dependence, vol.62, issue.3, pp.255-264, 2001.
DOI : 10.1016/S0376-8716(00)00211-8

J. Bell, T. Burrell, D. Indig, and S. Gilmour, Cycling in and out of treatment; participation in methadone treatment in NSW, 1990???2002, Drug and Alcohol Dependence, vol.81, issue.1, pp.55-61, 1990.
DOI : 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2005.05.010

A. Elkader, B. Brands, R. Callaghan, and B. Sproule, Exploring the relationship between perceived inter-dose opioid withdrawal and patient characteristics in methadone maintenance treatment, Drug and Alcohol Dependence, vol.105, issue.3, pp.209-214, 2009.
DOI : 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2009.07.003

E. Donny, S. Brasser, G. Bigelow, M. Stitzer, and S. Walsh, Methadone doses of 100???mg or greater are more effective than lower doses at suppressing heroin self-administration in opioid-dependent volunteers, Addiction, vol.66, issue.10, pp.1496-1509, 2005.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2005.01232.x

O. Lopatko, J. White, A. Huber, and W. Ling, Opioid effects and opioid withdrawal during a 24 h dosing interval in patients maintained on buprenorphine, Drug and Alcohol Dependence, vol.69, issue.3, pp.317-322, 2003.
DOI : 10.1016/S0376-8716(02)00322-8

C. De-wet, L. Reed, A. Glasper, P. Moran, J. Bearn et al., Benzodiazepine co-dependence exacerbates the opiate withdrawal syndrome, Drug and Alcohol Dependence, vol.76, issue.1, pp.31-35, 2004.
DOI : 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2004.04.002

M. Backmund, C. Schutz, K. Meyer, D. Eichenlaub, and M. Soyka, Alcohol Consumption in Heroin Users, Methadone-Substituted and Codeine-Substituted Patients ??? Frequency and Correlates of Use, European Addiction Research, vol.9, issue.1, pp.45-50, 2003.
DOI : 10.1159/000067733

P. Mateu-gelabert, M. Sandoval, P. Meylakhs, T. Wendel, and S. Friedman, Strategies to avoid opiate withdrawal: Implications for HCV and HIV risks, International Journal of Drug Policy, vol.21, issue.3, pp.179-185, 2010.
DOI : 10.1016/j.drugpo.2009.08.007

E. Mccance-katz, P. Rainey, G. Friedland, and P. Jatlow, The Protease Inhibitor Lopinavir-Ritonavir May Produce Opiate Withdrawal in Methadone-Maintained Patients, Clinical Infectious Diseases, vol.37, issue.4, pp.476-482, 2003.
DOI : 10.1086/376907

L. Michel, R. Giorgi, V. Villes, I. Poizot-martin, P. Dellamonica et al., Withdrawal symptoms as a predictor of mortality in patients HIV-infected through drug use and receiving highly Roux et al, Harm Reduction Journal, vol.881, pp.31-31, 2011.

R. Mattick, K. J. Breen, C. Davoli, and M. , Buprenorphine maintenance versus placebo or methadone maintenance for opioid dependence, Cochrane Database Syst Rev, issue.2, p.2207, 2008.
DOI : 10.1002/14651858.cd002207.pub3

G. Gerra, F. Borella, A. Zaimovic, G. Moi, M. Bussandri et al., Buprenorphine versus methadone for opioid dependence: predictor variables for treatment outcome, Drug and Alcohol Dependence, vol.75, issue.1, pp.37-45, 2004.
DOI : 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2003.11.017

A. Guichard, F. Lert, J. Brodeur, and L. Richard, Buprenorphine substitution treatment in France: Drug users??? views of the doctor???user relationship, Social Science & Medicine, vol.64, issue.12, pp.2578-2593, 2007.
DOI : 10.1016/j.socscimed.2007.02.049
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/inserm-00142914

S. Magura, P. Nwakeze, and S. Demsky, RESEARCH REPORT Pre- and in-treatment predictors of retention in methadone treatment using survival analysis, Addiction, vol.93, issue.1, pp.51-60, 1998.
DOI : 10.1046/j.1360-0443.1998.931516.x

S. Darke, Self-report among injecting drug users: A review, Drug and Alcohol Dependence, vol.51, issue.3, pp.253-263, 1998.
DOI : 10.1016/S0376-8716(98)00028-3

R. Weiss, L. Najavits, S. Greenfield, J. Soto, S. Shaw et al., Validity of Substance Use Self-Reports in Dually Diagnosed Outpatients, American Journal of Psychiatry, vol.155, issue.1, pp.127-128, 1998.
DOI : 10.1176/ajp.155.1.127

A. Messiah, A. Loundou, V. Maslin, B. Lacarelle, and J. Moatti, Physician Recognition of Active Injection Drug Use In HIV-Infected Patients Is Lower Than Validity of Patient's Self-Reported Drug Use, Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, vol.21, issue.2, pp.103-112, 2001.
DOI : 10.1016/S0885-3924(00)00248-7

G. Quaglio, F. Lugoboni, C. Pattaro, L. Montanari, A. Lechi et al., Patients in long-term maintenance therapy for drug use in Italy: analysis of some parameters of social integration and serological status for infectious diseases in a cohort of 1091 patients, BMC Public Health, vol.51, issue.1, p.216, 2006.
DOI : 10.1016/S0376-8716(98)00028-3

R. Newman, Adherence to methadone treatment: Not just a patient problem, Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, vol.36, issue.4, p.463, 2009.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jsat.2008.11.010